High throughput screening of crystallization of materials

ABSTRACT

High throughput screening of crystallization of a target material is accomplished by simultaneously introducing a solution of the target material into a plurality of chambers of a microfabricated fluidic device. The microfabricated fluidic device is then manipulated to vary the solution condition in the chambers, thereby simultaneously providing a large number of crystallization environments. Control over changed solution conditions may result from a variety of techniques, including but not limited to metering volumes of crystallizing agent into the chamber by volume exclusion, by entrapment of volumes of crystallizing agent determined by the dimensions of the microfabricated structure, or by cross-channel injection of sample and crystallizing agent into an array of junctions defined by intersecting orthogonal flow channels.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This nonprovisional patent application is a continuation-in-part of nonprovisional patent application Ser. No. 09/826,585 filed Apr. 6, 2001. The text of this prior patent application is hereby incorporated by reference.

STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS TO INVENTIONS MADE UNDER FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

[0002] Work described herein has been supported, in part, by National Institute of Health grant HG-01642-02. The United States Government may therefore have certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0003] Crystallization is an important technique to the biological and chemical arts. Specifically, a high-quality crystal of a target compound can be analyzed by x-ray diffraction techniques to produce an accurate three-dimensional structure of the target. This three-dimensional structure information can then be utilized to predict functionality and behavior of the target.

[0004] In theory, the crystallization process is simple. A target compound in pure form is dissolved in solvent. The chemical environment of the dissolved target material is then altered such that the target is less soluble and reverts to the solid phase in crystalline form. This change in chemical environment typically accomplished by introducing a crystallizing agent that makes the target material is less soluble, although changes in temperature and pressure can also influence solubility of the target material.

[0005] In practice however, forming a high quality crystal is generally difficult and sometimes impossible, requiring much trial and error and patience on the part of the researcher. Specifically, the highly complex structure of even simple biological compounds means that they are not amenable to forming a highly ordered crystalline structure. Therefore, a researcher must be patient and methodical, experimenting with a large number of conditions for crystallization, altering parameters such as sample concentration, solvent type, countersolvent type, temperature, and duration in order to obtain a high quality crystal, if in fact a crystal can be obtained at all.

[0006] Accordingly, there is a need in the art for methods and structures for performing high throughput screening of crystallization of target materials.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0007] The present invention sets forth method and structures for performing high throughput screening of crystallization of target materials. Methods and structures for purifying small samples by recrystallization are also provided.

[0008] High throughput screening of crystallization of a target material is accomplished by simultaneously introducing a solution of the target material at a known concentration into a plurality of chambers of a microfabricated fluidic device. The microfabricated fluidic device is then manipulated to vary the solvent concentration in each of the chambers, thereby simultaneously providing a large number of crystallization environments. Control over changed solvent conditions may result from a variety of techniques, including but not limited to metering of a crystallizing agent through exclusion of volume from the chamber, entrapment of precisely controlled volumes of crystallizing agent as determined by the dimensions of the microfluidic device, or cross-channel injection into an array of junctions defined by intersecting orthogonal flow channels.

[0009] An embodiment of a method of metering a volume of a crystallizing agent to promote crystallization in accordance with the present invention comprises providing a chamber having a volume in an elastomeric block separated from a control recess by an elastomeric membrane, and supplying a pressure to the control recess such that the membrane is deflected into the chamber and the volume is reduced by a calibrated amount, thereby excluding from the chamber a calibrated volume of a crystallization sample. This method may further comprise providing a second fluid to an opening of the chamber, and ceasing application of the pressure such that the membrane relaxes back to an original position and the calibrated volume of a crystallizing agent is drawn into the chamber. This method may also further comprise the parallelization of multiple chambers with varying calibrated volumes.

[0010] An embodiment of a system for crystallizing a target material in accordance with the present invention comprises an elastomeric block including a microfabricated chamber configured to contain a volume of a solution of the target material, and a microfabricated flow channel in fluid communication with the chamber, the flow channel introducing a volume of a crystallizing agent into the chamber. The crystallization system may further comprise an isolation structure configured to selectively isolate the chamber from the flow channel as the flow channel receives a volume of a crystallizing agent, and then to place the chamber into contact with the flow channel to alter a solution condition within the chamber. Alternatively, the crystallization system may further comprise a control channel overlying the chamber and separated from the chamber by a membrane, the membrane deflectable into the chamber to exclude a calibrated volume of sample solution from the chamber, such that relaxation of the membrane draws the calibrated volume of the crystallizing agent into the chamber. Further alternatively, the crystallization system may comprise a plurality of first parallel flow channels in fluid communication with a target material, and a plurality of second parallel flow channels orthogonal to and intersecting the first flow channels to create a plurality of junctions, the second flow channels in fluid communication with a crystallizing agent such that an array of solution environments can be created at the junctions.

[0011] Another embodiment of a system for crystallizing a target material in accordance with the present invention comprises an elastomeric block including a microfabricated chamber configured to contain a volume of a solution of the target material, and a crystallizing agent reservoir in fluid communication with the microfabricated chamber through a dialysis membrane, the dialysis membrane configured to prevent flow of the target material into the crystallizing agent reservoir. The crystallizing agent reservoir may be formed in a second elastomeric block, the dialysis membrane may be present within the elastomeric block, and the dialysis membrane may comprise a polymer introduced between the chamber and the reservoir and then subjected to cross-linking.

[0012] An embodiment of a method for crystallizing a target material in accordance with the present invention comprises charging a chamber of a microfabricated elastomeric block with a volume of solution of the target material; and introducing a volume of a crystallizing agent into the chamber to change a solvent environment of the chamber. The volume of crystallizing agent may be introduced into the chamber by deforming an elastomer membrane overlying the chamber to exclude the volume of the sample from the chamber, followed by relaxing the membrane to cause the volume of a surrounding crystallizing agent to flow into the chamber. Alternatively, the volume of crystallizing agent may be introduced into the chamber by entrapping a volume of crystallizing agent proximate to the chamber, and then opening an elastomer valve positioned between the chamber and the crystallizing agent to allow diffusion of crystallizing agent into the chamber. Further alternatively, the volume of crystallizing agent may be introduced into the chamber by diffusion across a dialysis membrane.

[0013] Still further alternatively, the chamber may be defined by a junction between a first flow channel orthogonal to a second flow channel, and wherein the sample is flowed through the first flow channel and the crystallizing agent flowed through the second flow channel. An array of such chambers may be defined by a junction between a first set of parallel flow channels orthogonal to a second set of parallel flow channels, with samples flowed through the first flow channels and crystallizing agent flowed through the second flow channels to create an array of solution conditions.

[0014] An embodiment of a method for crystallizing a target material comprises introducing a crystallizing agent to a target material solution in the presence of a surface having a morphology calculated to serve as a template for formation of a crystal of the target material. In certain embodiments, this morphology may take the form of a regular morphology of a mineral surface, or features of a semiconductor substrate patterned by lithography.

[0015] An embodiment of a method for crystallizing a target material by vapor diffusion in accordance with the present invention comprises providing a target material solution within a microfabricated chamber, and providing a recrystallizing agent in fluid communication with the microfabricated chamber. An air pocket is provided between the chamber and the recrystallization agent, such that the crystallizing agent diffuses in the vapor phase across the air pocket into the target material solution. In certain embodiments, the air pocket may be secured in place through formation of a hydrophobic material utilizing microcontact printing techniques.

[0016] These and other embodiments of the present invention, as well as its advantages and features, are described in more detail in conjunction with the text below and attached figures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0017]FIG. 1 is an illustration of a first elastomeric layer formed on top of a micromachined mold.

[0018]FIG. 2 is an illustration of a second elastomeric layer formed on top of a micromachined mold.

[0019]FIG. 3 is an illustration of the elastomeric layer of FIG. 2 removed from the micromachined mold and positioned over the top of the elastomeric layer of FIG. 1

[0020]FIG. 4 is an illustration corresponding to FIG. 3, but showing the second elastomeric layer positioned on top of the first elastomeric layer.

[0021]FIG. 5 is an illustration corresponding to FIG. 4, but showing the first and second elastomeric layers bonded together.

[0022]FIG. 6 is an illustration corresponding to FIG. 5, but showing the first micromachined mold removed and a planar substrate positioned in its place.

[0023]FIG. 7A is an illustration corresponding to FIG. 6, but showing the elastomeric structure sealed onto the planar substrate.

[0024]FIGS. 7B is a front sectional view corresponding to FIG. 7A, showing an open flow channel.

[0025] FIGS. 7C-7G are illustrations showing steps of a method for forming an elastomeric structure having a membrane formed from a separate elastomeric layer.

[0026]FIGS. 8A and 8B illustrates valve opening vs. applied pressure for various flow channels.

[0027]FIG. 9 illustrates time response of a 100 μm×100 μm×100 μm RTV microvalve.

[0028]FIG. 12A is a top schematic view of an on/off valve.

[0029]FIG. 12B is a sectional elevation view along line 23B-23B in FIG. 12A

[0030]FIG. 13A is a top schematic view of a peristaltic pumping system.

[0031]FIG. 13B is a sectional elevation view along line 24B-24B in FIG. 13A

[0032]FIG. 14 is a graph showing experimentally achieved pumping rates vs. frequency for an embodiment of the peristaltic pumping system of FIG. 13.

[0033]FIG. 15A is a top schematic view of one control line actuating multiple flow lines simultaneously.

[0034]FIG. 15B is a sectional elevation view along line 26B-26B in FIG. 15A

[0035]FIG. 16 is a schematic illustration of a multiplexed system adapted to permit flow through various channels.

[0036]FIG. 17A is a plan view of a flow layer of an addressable reaction chamber structure.

[0037]FIG. 17B is a bottom plan view of a control channel layer of an addressable reaction chamber structure.

[0038]FIG. 17C is an exploded perspective view of the addressable reaction chamber structure formed by bonding the control channel layer of FIG. 17B to the top of the flow layer of FIG. 17A.

[0039]FIG. 17D is a sectional elevation view corresponding to FIG. 17C, taken along line 28D-28D in FIG. 17C.

[0040]FIG. 18 is a schematic of a system adapted to selectively direct fluid flow into any of an array of reaction wells.

[0041]FIG. 19 is a schematic of a system adapted for selectable lateral flow between parallel flow channels.

[0042]FIG. 20A is a bottom plan view of first layer (i.e.: the flow channel layer) of elastomer of a switchable flow array.

[0043]FIG. 20B is a bottom plan view of a control channel layer of a switchable flow array.

[0044]FIG. 20C shows the alignment of the first layer of elastomer of FIG. 20A with one set of control channels in the second layer of elastomer of FIG. 20B.

[0045]FIG. 20D also shows the alignment of the first layer of elastomer of FIG. 20A with the other set of control channels in the second layer of elastomer of FIG. 20B.

[0046] FIGS. 21A-21J show views of one embodiment of a normally-closed valve structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0047]FIGS. 22A and 22B show plan views illustrating operation of one embodiment of a side-actuated valve structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0048]FIG. 23 shows a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of a composite structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0049]FIG. 24 shows a cross-sectional view of another embodiment of a composite structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0050]FIG. 25 shows a cross-sectional view of another embodiment of a composite structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0051] FIGS. 26A-26D show plan views illustrating operation of one embodiment of a cell pen structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0052] FIGS. 27A-27B show plan and cross-sectional views illustrating operation of one embodiment of a cell cage structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0053] FIGS. 28A-28B show plan views of operation of a wiring structure utilizing cross-channel injection in accordance with the embodiment of the present invention.

[0054] FIGS. 29A-29D illustrate cross-sectional views of metering by volume exclusion in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.

[0055]FIG. 30 is a plan view of one embodiment of a recrystallization system in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention utilizing volume exclusion.

[0056]FIG. 31 is a plan view of one embodiment of a recrystallization system in accordance with the present invention utilizing volume entrapment.

[0057]FIG. 32 is a plan view of an alternative embodiment of a recrystallization system in accordance with the present invention utilizing volume entrapment.

[0058]FIG. 33 is a plan view of a protein crystallization system in allowance with one embodiment in accordance with the present invention utilizing cross-channel injection.

[0059] FIGS. 34A-34C are enlarged views of a portion of the recrystallization system of FIG. 32 showing its operation.

[0060]FIG. 35 is a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of a recrystallization system in accordance with the present invention utilizing a dialysis membrane.

[0061]FIG. 36 is a cross-sectional view of another embodiment of a recrystallization system in accordance with the present invention utilizing a dialysis membrane.

[0062]FIG. 37 is a plan view of still another embodiment of a recrystallization system in accordance with the present invention utilizing a dialysis membrane.

[0063] FIGS. 38A-C show cross-sectional views of a process for forming elastomer structures by bonding along a vertical line.

[0064]FIG. 39 shows a plan view of an embodiment of a structure in accordance with the present invention for performing crystallization by vapor phase diffusion.

[0065]FIG. 40 shows a plan view of another embodiment of a structure in accordance with the present invention for performing crystallization by vapor phase diffusion.

[0066]FIG. 41 shows a plan view of still another embodiment of a structure in accordance with the present invention for performing crystallization by vapor phase diffusion.

[0067]FIG. 42 shows a plan view of an embodiment of a structure in accordance with the present invention for sorting crystals of various sizes.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESENT INVENTION

[0068] I. Microfabrication Overview

[0069] The following discussion relates to formation of microfabricated fluidic devices utilizing elastomer materials, as described generally in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/826,585 filed Apr. 6, 2001, Ser, No. 09/724,784 filed Nov. 28, 2000, and Ser. No. 09/605,520, filed Jun. 27, 2000. These patent applications are hereby incorporated by reference.

[0070] 1. Methods of Fabricating

[0071] Exemplary methods of fabricating the present invention are provided herein. It is to be understood that the present invention is not limited to fabrication by one or the other of these methods. Rather, other suitable methods of fabricating the present microstructures, including modifying the present methods, are also contemplated.

[0072] FIGS. 1 to 7B illustrate sequential steps of a first preferred method of fabricating the present microstructure, (which may be used as a pump or valve). FIGS. 8 to 18 illustrate sequential steps of a second preferred method of fabricating the present microstructure, (which also may be used as a pump or valve).

[0073] As will be explained, the preferred method of FIGS. 1 to 7B involves using pre-cured elastomer layers which are assembled and bonded. In an alternative method, each layer of elastomer may be cured “in place”. In the following description “channel” refers to a recess in the elastomeric structure which can contain a flow of fluid or gas.

[0074] Referring to FIG. 1, a first micro-machined mold 10 is provided. Micromachined mold 10 may be fabricated by a number of conventional silicon processing methods, including but not limited to photolithography, ion-milling, and electron beam lithography.

[0075] As can be seen, micro-machined mold 10 has a raised line or protrusion 11 extending therealong. A first elastomeric layer 20 is cast on top of mold 10 such that a first recess 21 will be formed in the bottom surface of elastomeric layer 20, (recess 21 corresponding in dimension to protrusion 11), as shown.

[0076] As can be seen in FIG. 2, a second micro-machined mold 12 having a raised protrusion 13 extending therealong is also provided. A second elastomeric layer 22 is cast on top of mold 12, as shown, such that a recess 23 will be formed in its bottom surface corresponding to the dimensions of protrusion 13.

[0077] As can be seen in the sequential steps illustrated in FIGS. 3 and 4, second elastomeric layer 22 is then removed from mold 12 and placed on top of first elastomeric layer 20. As can be seen, recess 23 extending along the bottom surface of second elastomeric layer 22 will form a flow channel 32.

[0078] Referring to FIG. 5, the separate first and second elastomeric layers 20 and 22 (FIG. 4) are then bonded together to form an integrated (i.e.: monolithic) elastomeric structure 24.

[0079] As can been seen in the sequential step of FIGS. 6 and 7A, elastomeric structure 24 is then removed from mold 10 and positioned on top of a planar substrate 14. As can be seen in FIGS. 7A and 7B, when elastomeric structure 24 has been sealed at its bottom surface to planar substrate 14, recess 21 will form a flow channel 30.

[0080] The present elastomeric structures form a reversible hermetic seal with nearly any smooth planar substrate. An advantage to forming a seal this way is that the elastomeric structures may be peeled up, washed, and re-used. In preferred aspects, planar substrate 14 is glass. A further advantage of using glass is that glass is transparent, allowing optical interrogation of elastomer channels and reservoirs. Alternatively, the elastomeric structure may be bonded onto a flat elastomer layer by the same method as described above, forming a permanent and high-strength bond. This may prove advantageous when higher back pressures are used.

[0081] As can be seen in FIGS. 7A and 7B, flow channels 30 and 32 are preferably disposed at an angle to one another with a small membrane 25 of substrate 24 separating the top of flow channel 30 from the bottom of flow channel 32.

[0082] In preferred aspects, planar substrate 14 is glass. An advantage of using glass is that the present elastomeric structures may be peeled up, washed and reused. A further advantage of using glass is that optical sensing may be employed. Alternatively, planar substrate 14 may be an elastomer itself, which may prove advantageous when higher back pressures are used.

[0083] The method of fabrication just described may be varied to form a structure having a membrane composed of an elastomeric material different than that forming the walls of the channels of the device. This variant fabrication method is illustrated in FIGS. 7C-7G.

[0084] Referring to FIG. 7C, a first micro-machined mold 10 is provided. Micromachined mold 10 has a raised line or protrusion 11 extending therealong. In FIG. 7D, first elastomeric layer 20 is cast on top of first micro-machined mold 10 such that the top of the first elastomeric layer 20 is flush with the top of raised line or protrusion 11. This may be accomplished by carefully controlling the volume of elastomeric material spun onto mold 10 relative to the known height of raised line 11. Alternatively, the desired shape could be formed by injection molding.

[0085] In FIG. 7E, second micro-machined mold 12 having a raised protrusion 13 extending therealong is also provided. Second elastomeric layer 22 is cast on top of second mold 12 as shown, such that recess 23 is formed in its bottom surface corresponding to the dimensions of protrusion 13.

[0086] In FIG. 7F, second elastomeric layer 22 is removed from mold 12 and placed on top of third elastomeric layer 222. Second elastomeric layer 22 is bonded to third elastomeric layer 20 to form integral elastomeric block 224 using techniques described in detail below. At this point in the process, recess 23 formerly occupied by raised line 13 will form flow channel 23.

[0087] In FIG. 7G, elastomeric block 224 is placed on top of first micro-machined mold 10 and first elastomeric layer 20. Elastomeric block and first elastomeric layer 20 are then bonded together to form an integrated (i.e.: monolithic) elastomeric structure 24 having a membrane composed of a separate elastomeric layer 222.

[0088] When elastomeric structure 24 has been sealed at its bottom surface to a planar substrate in the manner described above in connection with FIG. 7A, the recess formerly occupied by raised line 11 will form flow channel 30.

[0089] The variant fabrication method illustrated above in conjunction with FIGS. 7C-7G offers the advantage of permitting the membrane portion to be composed of a separate material than the elastomeric material of the remainder of the structure. This is important because the thickness and elastic properties of the membrane play a key role in operation of the device. Moreover, this method allows the separate elastomer layer to readily be subjected to conditioning prior to incorporation into the elastomer structure. As discussed in detail below, examples of potentially desirable condition include the introduction of magnetic or electrically conducting species to permit actuation of the membrane, and/or the introduction of dopant into the membrane in order to alter its elasticity.

[0090] While the above method is illustrated in connection with forming various shaped elastomeric layers formed by replication molding on top of a micromachined mold, the present invention is not limited to this technique. Other techniques could be employed to form the individual layers of shaped elastomeric material that are to be bonded together. For example, a shaped layer of elastomeric material could be formed by laser cutting or injection molding, or by methods utilizing chemical etching and/or sacrificial materials as discussed below in conjunction with the second exemplary method.

[0091] An alternative method fabricates a patterned elastomer structure utilizing development of photoresist encapsulated within elastomer material. However, the methods in accordance with the present invention are not limited to utilizing photoresist. Other materials such as metals could also serve as sacrificial materials to be removed selective to the surrounding elastomer material, and the method would remain within the scope of the present invention. For example, gold metal may be etched selective to RTV 615 elastomer utilizing the appropriate chemical mixture.

[0092] 2. Layer and Channel Dimensions

[0093] Microfabricated refers to the size of features of an elastomeric structure fabricated in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. In general, variation in at least one dimension of microfabricated structures is controlled to the micron level, with at least one dimension being microscopic (i.e. below 1000 μm). Microfabrication typically involves semiconductor or MEMS fabrication techniques such as photolithography and spincoating that are designed for to produce feature dimensions on the microscopic level, with at least some of the dimension of the microfabricated structure requiring a microscope to reasonably resolve/image the structure.

[0094] In preferred aspects, flow channels 30, 32, 60 and 62 preferably have width-to-depth ratios of about 10:1. A non-exclusive list of other ranges of width-to-depth ratios in accordance with embodiments of the present invention is 0.1:1 to 100:1, more preferably 1:1 to 50:1, more preferably 2:1 to 20:1, and most preferably 3:1 to 15:1. In an exemplary aspect, flow channels 30, 32, 60 and 62 have widths of about 1 to 1000 microns. A non-exclusive list of other ranges of widths of flow channels in accordance with embodiments of the present invention is 0.01 to 1000 microns, more preferably 0.05 to 1000 microns, more preferably 0.2 to 500 microns, more preferably 1 to 250 microns, and most preferably 10 to 200 microns. Exemplary channel widths include 0.1 μm, 1 μm, 2 μm, 5 μm, 10 μm, 20 μm, 30 μm, 40 μm, 50 μm, 60 μm, 70 μm, 80 μm, 90 μm, 100 μm, 110 μm, 120 μm, 130 μm, 140 μm, 150 μm, 160 μm, 170 μm, 180 μm, 190 μm, 200 μm, 210 μm, 220 μm, 230 μm, 240 μm, and 250 μm.

[0095] Flow channels 30, 32, 60, and 62 have depths of about 1 to 100 microns. A non-exclusive list of other ranges of depths of flow channels in accordance with embodiments of the present invention is 0.01 to 1000 microns, more preferably 0.05 to 500 microns, more preferably 0.2 to 250 microns, and more preferably 1 to 100 microns, more preferably 2 to 20 microns, and most preferably 5 to 10 microns. Exemplary channel depths include including 0.01 μm, 0.02 μm, 0.05 μm, 0.1 μm, 0.2 μm, 0.5 μm, 1 μm, 2 μm, 3 μm, 4 μm, 5 μm, 7.5 μm, 10 μm, 12.5 μm, 15 μm, 17.5 μm, 20 μm, 22.5 μm, 25 μm, 30 μm, 40 μm, 50 μm, 75 μm, 100 μm, 150 μm, 200 μm, and 250 μm.

[0096] The flow channels are not limited to these specific dimension ranges and examples given above, and may vary in width in order to affect the magnitude of force required to deflect the membrane as discussed at length below in conjunction with FIG. 27. For example, extremely narrow flow channels having a width on the order of 0.01 m may be useful in optical and other applications, as discussed in detail below. Elastomeric structures which include portions having channels of even greater width than described above are also contemplated by the present invention, and examples of applications of utilizing such wider flow channels include fluid reservoir and mixing channel structures.

[0097] The Elastomeric layers may be cast thick for mechanical stability. In an exemplary embodiment, elastomeric layer 22 of FIG. 1 is 50 microns to several centimeters thick, and more preferably approximately 4 mm thick. A non-exclusive list of ranges of thickness of the elastomer layer in accordance with other embodiments of the present invention is between about 0.1 micron to 10 cm, 1 micron to 5 cm, 10 microns to 2 cm, 100 microns to 10 mm.

[0098] Accordingly, membrane 25 of FIG. 7B separating flow channels 30 and 32 has a typical thickness of between about 0.01 and 1000 microns, more preferably 0.05 to 500 microns, more preferably 0.2 to 250, more preferably 1 to 100 microns, more preferably 2 to 50 microns, and most preferably 5 to 40 microns. As such, the thickness of elastomeric layer 22 is about 100 times the thickness of elastomeric layer 20. Exemplary membrane thicknesses include 0.01 μm, 0.02 μm, 0.03 μm, 0.05 μm, 0.1 μm, 0.2 μm, 0.3 μm, 0.5 μm, 1 μm, 2 μm, 3 μm, 5 μm, 7.5 μm, 10 μm, 12.5 μm, 15 μm, 17.5 μm, 20 μm, 22.5 μm, 25 μm, 30 μm, 40 μm, 50 μm, 75 μm, 100 μm, 150 μm, 200 μm, 250 μm, 300 μm, 400 um, 500 μm, 750 μm, and 1000 μm.

[0099] 3. Soft Lithographic Bonding

[0100] Preferably, elastomeric layers are bonded together chemically, using chemistry that is intrinsic to the polymers comprising the patterned elastomer layers. Most preferably, the bonding comprises two component “addition cure” bonding.

[0101] In a preferred aspect, the various layers of elastomer are bound together in a heterogenous bonding in which the layers have a different chemistry. Alternatively, a homogenous bonding may be used in which all layers would be of the same chemistry. Thirdly, the respective elastomer layers may optionally be glued together by an adhesive instead. In a fourth aspect, the elastomeric layers may be thermoset elastomers bonded together by heating.

[0102] In one aspect of homogeneous bonding, the elastomeric layers are composed of the same elastomer material, with the same chemical entity in one layer reacting with the same chemical entity in the other layer to bond the layers together. In one embodiment, bonding between polymer chains of like elastomer layers may result from activation of a crosslinking agent due to light, heat, or chemical reaction with a separate chemical species.

[0103] Alternatively in a heterogeneous aspect, the elastomeric layers are composed of different elastomeric materials, with a first chemical entity in one layer reacting with a second chemical entity in another layer. In one exemplary heterogenous aspect, the bonding process used to bind respective elastomeric layers together may comprise bonding together two layers of RTV 615 silicone. RTV 615 silicone is a two-part addition-cure silicone rubber. Part A contains vinyl groups and catalyst; part B contains silicon hydride (Si—H) groups. The conventional ratio for RTV 615 is 10A:1B. For bonding, one layer may be made with 30A: 1B (i.e.excess vinyl groups) and the other with 3A:1B (i.e.excess Si—H groups). Each layer is cured separately. When the two layers are brought into contact and heated at elevated temperature, they bond irreversibly forming a monolithic elastomeric substrate.

[0104] In an exemplary aspect of the present invention, elastomeric structures are formed utilizing Sylgard 182, 184 or 186, or aliphatic urethane diacrylates such as (but not limited to) Ebecryl 270 or Irr 245 from UCB Chemical.

[0105] In one embodiment in accordance with the present invention, two-layer elastomeric structures were fabricated from pure acrylated Urethane Ebe 270. A thin bottom layer was spin coated at 8000 rpm for 15 seconds at 170° C. The top and bottom layers were initially cured under ultraviolet light for 10 minutes under nitrogen utilizing a Model ELC 500 device manufactured by Electrolite corporation. The assembled layers were then cured for an additional 30 minutes. Reaction was catalyzed by a 0.5% vol/vol mixture of Irgacure 500 manufactured by Ciba-Geigy Chemicals. The resulting elastomeric material exhibited moderate elasticity and adhesion to glass.

[0106] In another embodiment in accordance with the present invention, two-layer elastomeric structures were fabricated from a combination of 25% Ebe 270/50% Irr245/25% isopropyl alcohol for a thin bottom layer, and pure acrylated Urethane Ebe 270 as a top layer. The thin bottom layer was initially cured for 5 min, and the top layer initially cured for 10 minutes, under ultraviolet light under nitrogen utilizing a Model ELC 500 device manufactured by Electrolite corporation. The assembled layers were then cured for an additional 30 minutes. Reaction was catalyzed by a 0.5% vol/vol mixture of Irgacure 500 manufactured by Ciba-Geigy Chemicals. The resulting elastomeric material exhibited moderate elasticity and adhered to glass.

[0107] Alternatively, other bonding methods may be used, including activating the elastomer surface, for example by plasma exposure, so that the elastomer layers/substrate will bond when placed in contact. For example, one possible approach to bonding together elastomer layers composed of the same material is set forth by Duffy et al, “Rapid Prototyping of Microfluidic Systems in Poly (dimethylsiloxane)”, Analytical Chemistry (1998), 70, 4974-4984, incorporated herein by reference. This paper discusses that exposing polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) layers to oxygen plasma causes oxidation of the surface, with irreversible bonding occurring when the two oxidized layers are placed into contact.

[0108] Yet another approach to bonding together successive layers of elastomer is to utilize the adhesive properties of uncured elastomer. Specifically, a thin layer of uncured elastomer such as RTV 615 is applied on top of a first cured elastomeric layer. Next, a second cured elastomeric layer is placed on top of the uncured elastomeric layer. The thin middle layer of uncured elastomer is then cured to produce a monolithic elastomeric structure. Alternatively, uncured elastomer can be applied to the bottom of a first cured elastomer layer, with the first cured elastomer layer placed on top of a second cured elastomer layer. Curing the middle thin elastomer layer again results in formation of a monolithic elastomeric structure.

[0109] Where encapsulation of sacrificial layers is employed to fabricate the elastomer structure, bonding of successive elastomeric layers may be accomplished by pouring uncured elastomer over a previously cured elastomeric layer and any sacrificial material patterned thereupon. Bonding between elastomer layers occurs due to interpenetration and reaction of the polymer chains of an uncured elastomer layer with the polymer chains of a cured elastomer layer. Subsequent curing of the elastomeric layer will create a bond between the elastomeric layers and create a monolithic elastomeric structure.

[0110] Referring to the first method of FIGS. 1 to 7B, first elastomeric layer 20 may be created by spin-coating an RTV mixture on microfabricated mold 12 at 2000 rpm's for 30 seconds yielding a thickness of approximately 40 microns. Second elastomeric layer 22 may be created by spin-coating an RTV mixture on microfabricated mold 11. Both layers 20 and 22 may be separately baked or cured at about 80° C. for 1.5 hours. The second elastomeric layer 22 may be bonded onto first elastomeric layer 20 at about 80° C. for about 1.5 hours.

[0111] Micromachined molds 10 and 12 may be patterned photoresist on silicon wafers. In an exemplary aspect, a Shipley SJR 5740 photoresist was spun at 2000 rpm patterned with a high resolution transparency film as a mask and then developed yielding an inverse channel of approximately 10 microns in height. When baked at approximately 200° C. for about 30 minutes, the photoresist reflows and the inverse channels become rounded. In preferred aspects, the molds may be treated with trimethylchlorosilane (TMCS) vapor for about a minute before each use in order to prevent adhesion of silicone rubber.

[0112] 4. Suitable Elastomeric Materials

[0113] Allcock et al, Contemporary Polymer Chemistry, 2^(nd) Ed. describes elastomers in general as polymers existing at a temperature between their glass transition temperature and liquefaction temperature. Elastomeric materials exhibit elastic properties because the polymer chains readily undergo torsional motion to permit uncoiling of the backbone chains in response to a force, with the backbone chains recoiling to assume the prior shape in the absence of the force. In general, elastomers deform when force is applied, but then return to their original shape when the force is removed. The elasticity exhibited by elastomeric materials may be characterized by a Young's modulus. Elastomeric materials having a Young's modulus of between about 1 Pa-1 TPa, more preferably between about 10 Pa-100 GPa, more preferably between about 20 Pa-1 GPa, more preferably between about 50 Pa-10 MPa, and more preferably between about 100 Pa-1 MPa are useful in accordance with the present invention, although elastomeric materials having a Young's modulus outside of these ranges could also be utilized depending upon the needs of a particular application.

[0114] The systems of the present invention may be fabricated from a wide variety of elastomers. In an exemplary aspect, the elastomeric layers may preferably be fabricated from silicone rubber. However, other suitable elastomers may also be used.

[0115] In an exemplary aspect of the present invention, the present systems are fabricated from an elastomeric polymer such as GE RTV 615 (formulation), a vinylsilane crosslinked (type) silicone elastomer (family). However, the present systems are not limited to this one formulation, type or even this family of polymer; rather, nearly any elastomeric polymer is suitable. An important requirement for the preferred method of fabrication of the present microvalves is the ability to bond multiple layers of elastomers together. In the case of multilayer soft lithography, layers of elastomer are cured separately and then bonded together. This scheme requires that cured layers possess sufficient reactivity to bond together. Either the layers may be of the same type, and are capable of bonding to themselves, or they may be of two different types, and are capable of bonding to each other. Other possibilities include the use an adhesive between layers and the use of thermoset elastomers.

[0116] Given the tremendous diversity of polymer chemistries, precursors, synthetic methods, reaction conditions, and potential additives, there are a huge number of possible elastomer systems that could be used to make monolithic elastomeric microvalves and pumps. Variations in the materials used will most likely be driven by the need for particular material properties, i.e. solvent resistance, stiffness, gas permeability, or temperature stability.

[0117] There are many, many types of elastomeric polymers. A brief description of the most common classes of elastomers is presented here, with the intent of showing that even with relatively “standard” polymers, many possibilities for bonding exist. Common elastomeric polymers include polyisoprene, polybutadiene, polychloroprene, polyisobutylene, poly(styrene-butadiene-styrene), the polyurethanes, and silicones.

[0118] Polyisoprene, polybutadiene, polychloroprene:

[0119] Polyisoprene, polybutadiene, and polychloroprene are all polymerized from diene monomers, and therefore have one double bond per monomer when polymerized. This double bond allows the polymers to be converted to elastomers by vulcanization (essentially, sulfur is used to form crosslinks between the double bonds by heating). This would easily allow homogeneous multilayer soft lithography by incomplete vulcanization of the layers to be bonded; photoresist encapsulation would be possible by a similar mechanism.

[0120] Polyisobutylene:

[0121] Pure polyisobutylene has no double bonds, but is crosslinked to use as an elastomer by including a small amount (˜1%) of isoprene in the polymerization. The isoprene monomers give pendant double bonds on the polyisobutylene backbone, which may then be vulcanized as above.

[0122] Poly(styrene-butadiene-styrene):

[0123] Poly(styrene-butadiene-styrene) is produced by living anionic polymerization (that is, there is no natural chain-terminating step in the reaction), so “live” polymer ends can exist in the cured polymer. This makes it a natural candidate for the present photoresist encapsulation system (where there will be plenty of unreacted monomer in the liquid layer poured on top of the cured layer). Incomplete curing would allow homogeneous multilayer soft lithography (A to A bonding). The chemistry also facilitates making one layer with extra butadiene (“A”) and coupling agent and the other layer (“B”) with a butadiene deficit (for heterogeneous multilayer soft lithography). SBS is a “thermoset elastomer”, meaning that above a certain temperature it melts and becomes plastic (as opposed to elastic); reducing the temperature yields the elastomer again. Thus, layers can be bonded together by heating.

[0124] Polyurethanes:

[0125] Polyurethanes are produced from di-isocyanates (A-A) and di-alcohols or diamines (B-B); since there are a large variety of di-isocyanates and dialcohols/amines, the number of different types of polyurethanes is huge. The A vs. B nature of the polymers, however, would make them useful for heterogeneous multilayer soft lithography just as RTV 615 is: by using excess A-A in one layer and excess B-B in the other layer.

[0126] Silicones:

[0127] Silicone polymers probably have the greatest structural variety, and almost certainly have the greatest number of commercially available formulations. The vinyl-to-(Si—H) crosslinking of RTV 615 (which allows both heterogeneous multilayer soft lithography and photoresist encapsulation) has already been discussed, but this is only one of several crosslinking methods used in silicone polymer chemistry.

[0128] 5. Operation of Device

[0129]FIGS. 7B and 7H together show the closing of a first flow channel by pressurizing a second flow channel, with FIG. 7B (a front sectional view cutting through flow channel 32 in corresponding FIG. 7A), showing an open first flow channel 30; with FIG. 7H showing first flow channel 30 closed by pressurization of the second flow channel32.

[0130] Referring to FIG. 7B, first flow channel 30 and second flow channel 32 are shown. Membrane 25 separates the flow channels, forming the top of first flow channel 30 and the bottom of second flow channel 32. As can be seen, flow channel 30 is “open”.

[0131] As can be seen in FIG. 7H, pressurization of flow channel 32 (either by gas or liquid introduced therein) causes membrane 25 to deflect downward, thereby pinching off flow F passing through flow channel 30. Accordingly, by varying the pressure in channel 32, a linearly actuable valving system is provided such that flow channel 30 can be opened or closed by moving membrane 25 as desired. (For illustration purposes only, channel 30 in FIG. 7G is shown in a “mostly closed” position, rather than a “fully closed” position).

[0132] Since such valves are actuated by moving the roof of the channels themselves (i.e.: moving membrane 25) valves and pumps produced by this technique have a truly zero dead volume, and switching valves made by this technique have a dead volume approximately equal to the active volume of the valve, for example about 100×100×10 μm=100 pL. Such dead volumes and areas consumed by the moving membrane are approximately two orders of magnitude smaller than known conventional microvalves. Smaller and larger valves and switching valves are contemplated in the present invention, and a non-exclusive list of ranges of dead volume includes 1 aL to 1 uL, 100 aL to 100 nL, 1 fl to 10 nL, 100 fL to 1 nL, and 1 pL to 100 pL.

[0133] The extremely small volumes capable of being delivered by pumps and valves in accordance with the present invention represent a substantial advantage. Specifically, the smallest known volumes of fluid capable of being manually metered is around 0.1 μl. The smallest known volumes capable of being metered by automated systems is about ten-times larger (1 μl). Utilizing pumps and valves in accordance with the present invention, volumes of liquid of 10 nl or smaller can routinely be metered and dispensed. The accurate metering of extremely small volumes of fluid enabled by the present invention would be extremely valuable in a large number of biological applications, including diagnostic tests and assays.

[0134] Equation 1 represents a highly simplified mathematical model of deflection of a rectangular, linear, elastic, isotropic plate of uniform thickness by an applied pressure:

w=(BPb ⁴)/(Eh ³), where:  (1)

[0135] w=deflection of plate;

[0136] B=shape coefficient (dependent upon length vs. width and support of edges of plate);

[0137] P=applied pressure;

[0138] b=plate width

[0139] E=Young's modulus; and

[0140] h=plate thickness.

[0141] Thus even in this extremely simplified expression, deflection of an elastomeric membrane in response to a pressure will be a function of: the length, width, and thickness of the membrane, the flexibility of the membrane (Young's modulus), and the applied actuation force. Because each of these parameters will vary widely depending upon the actual dimensions and physical composition of a particular elastomeric device in accordance with the present invention, a wide range of membrane thicknesses and elasticities, channel widths, and actuation forces are contemplated by the present invention.

[0142] It should be understood that the formula just presented is only an approximation, since in general the membrane does not have uniform thickness, the membrane thickness is not necessarily small compared to the length and width, and the deflection is not necessarily small compared to length, width, or thickness of the membrane. Nevertheless, the equation serves as a useful guide for adjusting variable parameters to achieve a desired response of deflection versus applied force.

[0143]FIGS. 8A and 8B illustrate valve opening vs. applied pressure for a 100 μm wide first flow channel 30 and a 50 μm wide second flow channel 32. The membrane of this device was formed by a layer of General Electric Silicones RTV 615 having a thickness of approximately 30 μm and a Young's modulus of approximately 750 kPa. FIGS. 21a and 21 b show the extent of opening of the valve to be substantially linear over most of the range of applied pressures.

[0144] Air pressure was applied to actuate the membrane of the device through a 10 cm long piece of plastic tubing having an outer diameter of 0.025″ connected to a 25 mm piece of stainless steel hypodermic tubing with an outer diameter of 0.025″ and an inner diameter of 0.013″. This tubing was placed into contact with the control channel by insertion into the elastomeric block in a direction normal to the control channel. Air pressure was applied to the hypodermic tubing from an external LHDA miniature solenoid valve manufactured by Lee Co.

[0145] While control of the flow of material through the device has so far been described utilizing applied gas pressure, other fluids could be used.

[0146] For example, air is compressible, and thus experiences some finite delay between the time of application of pressure by the external solenoid valve and the time that this pressure is experienced by the membrane. In an alternative embodiment of the present invention, pressure could be applied from an external source to a non-compressible fluid such as water or hydraulic oils, resulting in a near-instantaneous transfer of applied pressure to the membrane. However, if the displaced volume of the valve is large or the control channel is narrow, higher viscosity of a control fluid may contribute to delay in actuation. The optimal medium for transferring pressure will therefore depend upon the particular application and device configuration, and both gaseous and liquid media are contemplated by the invention.

[0147] While external applied pressure as described above has been applied by a pump/tank system through a pressure regulator and external miniature valve, other methods of applying external pressure are also contemplated in the present invention, including gas tanks, compressors, piston systems, and columns of liquid. Also contemplated is the use of naturally occurring pressure sources such as may be found inside living organisms, such as blood pressure, gastric pressure, the pressure present in the cerebro-spinal fluid, pressure present in the intra-ocular space, and the pressure exerted by muscles during normal flexure. Other methods of regulating external pressure are also contemplated, such as miniature valves, pumps, macroscopic peristaltic pumps, pinch valves, and other types of fluid regulating equipment such as is known in the art.

[0148] As can be seen, the response of valves in accordance with embodiments of the present invention have been experimentally shown to be almost perfectly linear over a large portion of its range of travel, with minimal hysteresis. Accordingly, the present valves are ideally suited for microfluidic metering and fluid control. The linearity of the valve response demonstrates that the individual valves are well modeled as Hooke's Law springs. Furthermore, high pressures in the flow channel (i.e.: back pressure) can be countered simply by increasing the actuation pressure. Experimentally, the present inventors have achieved valve closure at back pressures of 70 kPa, but higher pressures are also contemplated. The following is a nonexclusive list of pressure ranges encompassed by the present invention: 10 Pa-25 MPa; 100 Pa-10 Mpa, 1 kPa-1 MPa, 1 kPa-300 kPa, 5 kPa-200 kPa, and 15 kPa-100 kPa.

[0149] While valves and pumps do not require linear actuation to open and close, linear response does allow valves to more easily be used as metering devices. In one embodiment of the invention, the opening of the valve is used to control flow rate by being partially actuated to a known degree of closure. Linear valve actuation makes it easier to determine the amount of actuation force required to close the valve to a desired degree of closure. Another benefit of linear actuation is that the force required for valve actuation may be easily determined from the pressure in the flow channel. If actuation is linear, increased pressure in the flow channel may be countered by adding the same pressure (force per unit area) to the actuated portion of the valve.

[0150] Linearity of a valve depends on the structure, composition, and method of actuation of the valve structure. Furthermore, whether linearity is a desirable characteristic in a valve depends on the application. Therefore, both linearly and nonlinearly actuable valves are contemplated in the present invention, and the pressure ranges over which a valve is linearly actuable will vary with the specific embodiment.

[0151]FIG. 9 illustrates time response (i.e.: closure of valve as a function of time in response to a change in applied pressure) of a 100 μm×100 μm×100 μm RTV microvalve with 10-cm-long air tubing connected from the chip to a pneumatic valve as described above.

[0152] Two periods of digital control signal, actual air pressure at the end of the tubing and valve opening are shown in FIG. 9. The pressure applied on the control line is 100 kPa, which is substantially higher than the 40 kPa required to close the valve. Thus, when closing, the valve is pushed closed with a pressure 60 kPa greater than required. When opening, however, the valve is driven back to its rest position only by its own spring force (≦40 kPa). Thus, τ_(close) is expected to be smaller than τ_(open). There is also a lag between the control signal and control pressure response, due to the limitations of the miniature valve used to control the pressure. Calling such lags t and the 1/e time constants τ, the values are: t_(open)=3.63 ms, τ_(open)=1.88 ms, t_(close)=2.15 ms, τ_(close)=0.51 ms. If 3τ each are allowed for opening and closing, the valve runs comfortably at 75 Hz when filled with aqueous solution.

[0153] If one used another actuation method which did not suffer from opening and closing lag, this valve would run at ˜375 Hz. Note also that the spring constant can be adjusted by changing the membrane thickness; this allows optimization for either fast opening or fast closing. The spring constant could also be adjusted by changing the elasticity (Young's modulus) of the membrane, as is possible by introducing dopant into the membrane or by utilizing a different elastomeric material to serve as the membrane (described above in conjunction with FIGS. 7C-7H.).

[0154] When experimentally measuring the valve properties as illustrated in FIG. 9 the valve opening was measured by fluorescence. In these experiments, the flow channel was filled with a solution of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) in buffer (pH≧8) and the fluorescence of a square area occupying the center ˜{fraction (1/3)}rd of the channel is monitored on an epi-fluorescence microscope with a photomultiplier tube with a 10 kHz bandwidth. The pressure was monitored with a Wheatstone-bridge pressure sensor (SenSym SCC15GD2) pressurized simultaneously with the control line through nearly identical pneumatic connections.

[0155] 6. Flow Channel Cross Sections

[0156] The flow channels of the present invention may optionally be designed with different cross sectional sizes and shapes, offering different advantages, depending upon their desired application. For example, the cross sectional shape of the lower flow channel may have a curved upper surface, either along its entire length or in the region disposed under an upper cross channel). Such a curved upper surface facilitates valve sealing, as follows.

[0157] Referring to FIG. 10, a cross sectional view (similar to that of FIG. 7B) through flow channels 30 and 32 is shown. As can be seen, flow channel 30 is rectangular in cross sectional shape. In an alternate preferred aspect of the invention, as shown in FIG. 20, the cross-section of a flow channel 30 instead has an upper curved surface.

[0158] Referring first to FIG. 10, when flow channel 32 is pressurized, the membrane portion 25 of elastomeric block 24 separating flow channels 30 and 32 will move downwardly to the successive positions shown by the dotted lines 25A, 25B, 25C, 25D, and 25E. As can be seen, incomplete sealing may possibly result at the edges of flow channel 30 adjacent planar substrate 14.

[0159] In the alternate preferred embodiment of FIG. 11, flow channel 30 a has a curved upper wall 25A. When flow channel 32 is pressurized, membrane portion 25 will move downwardly to the successive positions shown by dotted lines 25A2, 25A3, 25A4 and 25A5, with edge portions of the membrane moving first into the flow channel, followed by top membrane portions. An advantage of having such a curved upper surface at membrane 25A is that a more complete seal will be provided when flow channel 32 is pressurized. Specifically, the upper wall of the flow channel 30 will provide a continuous contacting edge against planar substrate 14, thereby avoiding the “island” of contact seen between wall 25 and the bottom of flow channel 30 in FIG. 10.

[0160] Another advantage of having a curved upper flow channel surface at membrane 25A is that the membrane can more readily conform to the shape and volume of the flow channel in response to actuation. Specifically, where a rectangular flow channel is employed, the entire perimeter (2× flow channel height, plus the flow channel width) must be forced into the flow channel. However where an arched flow channel is used, a smaller perimeter of material (only the semi-circular arched portion) must be forced into the channel. In this manner, the membrane requires less change in perimeter for actuation and is therefore more responsive to an applied actuation force to block the flow channel.

[0161] In an alternate aspect, (not illustrated), the bottom of flow channel 30 is rounded such that its curved surface mates with the curved upper wall 25A as seen in FIG. 20 described above.

[0162] In summary, the actual conformational change experienced by the membrane upon actuation will depend upon the configuration of the particular elastomeric structure. Specifically, the conformational change will depend upon the length, width, and thickness profile of the membrane, its attachment to the remainder of the structure, and the height, width, and shape of the flow and control channels and the material properties of the elastomer used. The conformational change may also depend upon the method of actuation, as actuation of the membrane in response to an applied pressure will vary somewhat from actuation in response to a magnetic or electrostatic force.

[0163] Moreover, the desired conformational change in the membrane will also vary depending upon the particular application for the elastomeric structure. In the simplest embodiments described above, the valve may either be open or closed, with metering to control the degree of closure of the valve. In other embodiments however, it may be desirable to alter the shape of the membrane and/or the flow channel in order to achieve more complex flow regulation. For instance, the flow channel could be provided with raised protrusions beneath the membrane portion, such that upon actuation the membrane shuts off only a percentage of the flow through the flow channel, with the percentage of flow blocked insensitive to the applied actuation force.

[0164] Many membrane thickness profiles and flow channel cross-sections are contemplated by the present invention, including rectangular, trapezoidal, circular, ellipsoidal, parabolic, hyperbolic, and polygonal, as well as sections of the above shapes. More complex cross-sectional shapes, such as the embodiment with protrusions discussed immediately above or an embodiment having concavities in the flow channel, are also contemplated by the present invention.

[0165] In addition, while the invention is described primarily above in conjunction with an embodiment wherein the walls and ceiling of the flow channel are formed from elastomer, and the floor of the channel is formed from an underlying substrate, the present invention is not limited to this particular orientation. Walls and floors of channels could also be formed in the underlying substrate, with only the ceiling of the flow channel constructed from elastomer. This elastomer flow channel ceiling would project downward into the channel in response to an applied actuation force, thereby controlling the flow of material through the flow channel. In general, monolithic elastomer structures as described elsewhere in the instant application are preferred for microfluidic applications. However, it may be useful to employ channels formed in the substrate where such an arrangement provides advantages. For instance, a substrate including optical waveguides could be constructed so that the optical waveguides direct light specifically to the side of a microfluidic channel.

[0166] 7. Alternate Valve Actuation Techniques

[0167] In addition to pressure based actuation systems described above, optional electrostatic and magnetic actuation systems are also contemplated, as follows.

[0168] Electrostatic actuation can be accomplished by forming oppositely charged electrodes (which will tend to attract one another when a voltage differential is applied to them) directly into the monolithic elastomeric structure. For example, referring to FIG. 7B, an optional first electrode 70 (shown in phantom) can be positioned on (or in) membrane 25 and an optional second electrode 72 (also shown in phantom) can be positioned on (or in) planar substrate 14. When electrodes 70 and 72 are charged with opposite polarities, an attractive force between the two electrodes will cause membrane 25 to deflect downwardly, thereby closing the “valve” (i.e.: closing flow channel 30).

[0169] For the membrane electrode to be sufficiently conductive to support electrostatic actuation, but not so mechanically stiff so as to impede the valve's motion, a sufficiently flexible electrode must be provided in or over membrane 25. Such an electrode may be provided by a thin metallization layer, doping the polymer with conductive material, or making the surface layer out of a conductive material.

[0170] In an exemplary aspect, the electrode present at the deflecting membrane can be provided by a thin metallization layer which can be provided, for example, by sputtering a thin layer of metal such as 20 nm of gold. In addition to the formation of a metallized membrane by sputtering, other metallization approaches such as chemical epitaxy, evaporation, electroplating, and electroless plating are also available. Physical transfer of a metal layer to the surface of the elastomer is also available, for example by evaporating a metal onto a flat substrate to which it adheres poorly, and then placing the elastomer onto the metal and peeling the metal off of the substrate.

[0171] A conductive electrode 70 may also be formed by depositing carbon black (i.e. Cabot Vulcan XC72R) on the elastomer surface, either by wiping on the dry powder or by exposing the elastomer to a suspension of carbon black in a solvent which causes swelling of the elastomer, (such as a chlorinated solvent in the case of PDMS). Alternatively, the electrode 70 may be formed by constructing the entire layer 20 out of elastomer doped with conductive material (i.e. carbon black or finely divided metal particles). Yet further alternatively, the electrode may be formed by electrostatic deposition, or by a chemical reaction that produces carbon. In experiments conducted by the present inventors, conductivity was shown to increase with carbon black concentration from 5.6×10⁻¹⁶ to about 5×10⁻³ (Ω-cm)⁻¹. The lower electrode 72, which is not required to move, may be either a compliant electrode as described above, or a conventional electrode such as evaporated gold, a metal plate, or a doped semiconductor electrode.

[0172] Magnetic actuation of the flow channels can be achieved by fabricating the membrane separating the flow channels with a magnetically polarizable material such as iron, or a permanently magnetized material such as polarized NdFeB. In experiments conducted by the present inventors, magnetic silicone was created by the addition of iron powder (about 1 um particle size), up to 20% iron by weight.

[0173] Where the membrane is fabricated with a magnetically polarizable material, the membrane can be actuated by attraction in response to an applied magnetic field Where the membrane is fabricated with a material capable of maintaining permanent magnetization, the material can first be magnetized by exposure to a sufficiently high magnetic field, and then actuated either by attraction or repulsion in response to the polarity of an applied inhomogenous magnetic field.

[0174] The magnetic field causing actuation of the membrane can be generated in a variety of ways. In one embodiment, the magnetic field is generated by an extremely small inductive coil formed in or proximate to the elastomer membrane. The actuation effect of such a magnetic coil would be localized, allowing actuation of individual pump and/or valve structures. Alternatively, the magnetic field could be generated by a larger, more powerful source, in which case actuation would be global and would actuate multiple pump and/or valve structures at one time.

[0175] It is also possible to actuate the device by causing a fluid flow in the control channel based upon the application of thermal energy, either by thermal expansion or by production of gas from liquid. For example, in one alternative embodiment in accordance with the present invention, a pocket of fluid (e.g. in a fluid-filled control channel) is positioned over the flow channel. Fluid in the pocket can be in communication with a temperature variation system, for example a heater. Thermal expansion of the fluid, or conversion of material from the liquid to the gas phase, could result in an increase in pressure, closing the adjacent flow channel. Subsequent cooling of the fluid would relieve pressure and permit the flow channel to open.

[0176] 8. Networked Systems

[0177]FIGS. 12A and 12B show a views of a single on/off valve, identical to the systems set forth above, (for example in FIG. 7A). FIGS. 13A and 13B shows a peristaltic pumping system comprised of a plurality of the single addressable on/off valves as seen in FIG. 12, but networked together. FIG. 14 is a graph showing experimentally achieved pumping rates vs. frequency for the peristaltic pumping system of FIG. 13. FIGS. 15A and 1 SB show a schematic view of a plurality of flow channels which are controllable by a single control line. This system is also comprised of a plurality of the single addressable on/off valves of FIG. 12, multiplexed together, but in a different arrangement than that of FIG. 12. FIG. 16 is a schematic illustration of a multiplexing system adapted to permit fluid flow through selected channels, comprised of a plurality of the single on/off valves of FIG. 12, joined or networked together.

[0178] Referring first to FIGS. 12A and 12B, a schematic of flow channels 30 and 32 is shown. Flow channel 30 preferably has a fluid (or gas) flow F passing therethrough. Flow channel 32, (which crosses over flow channel 30, as was already explained herein), is pressurized such that membrane 25 separating the flow channels may be depressed into the path of flow channel 30, shutting off the passage of flow F therethrough, as has been explained. As such, “flow channel” 32 can also be referred to as a “control line” which actuates a single valve in flow channel 30. In FIGS. 12 to 15, a plurality of such addressable valves are joined or networked together in various arrangements to produce pumps, capable of peristaltic pumping, and other fluidic logic applications.

[0179] Referring to FIGS. 13A and 13B, a system for peristaltic pumping is provided, as follows. A flow channel 30 has a plurality of generally parallel flow channels (i.e.: control lines) 32A, 32B and 32C passing thereover. By pressurizing control line 32A, flow F through flow channel 30 is shut off under membrane 25A at the intersection of control line 32A and flow channel 30. Similarly, (but not shown), by pressurizing control line 32B, flow F through flow channel 30 is shut off under membrane 25B at the intersection of control line 32B and flow channel 30, etc.

[0180] Each of control lines 32A, 32B, and 32C is separately addressable. Therefore, peristalsis may be actuated by the pattern of actuating 32A and 32C together, followed by 32A, followed by 32A and 32B together, followed by 32B, followed by 32B and C together, etc. This corresponds to a successive “101, 100, 110, 010, 011, 001” pattern, where “0” indicates “valve open” and “1” indicates “valve closed.” This peristaltic pattern is also known as a 120° pattern (referring to the phase angle of actuation between three valves). Other peristaltic patterns are equally possible, including 60° and 90° patterns.

[0181] In experiments performed by the inventors, a pumping rate of 2.35 nL/s was measured by measuring the distance traveled by a column of water in thin (0.5 mm i.d.) tubing; with 100×1100×10 μm valves under an actuation pressure of 40 kPa. The pumping rate increased with actuation frequency until approximately 75 Hz, and then was nearly constant until above 200 Hz. The valves and pumps are also quite durable and the elastomer membrane, control channels, or bond have never been observed to fail. In experiments performed by the inventors, none of the valves in the peristaltic pump described herein show any sign of wear or fatigue after more than 4 million actuations. In addition to their durability, they are also gentle. A solution of E. coli pumped through a channel and tested for viability showed a 94% survival rate.

[0182]FIG. 14 is a graph showing experimentally achieved pumping rates vs. frequency for the peristaltic pumping system of FIG. 13.

[0183]FIGS. 15A and 15B illustrates another way of assembling a plurality of the addressable valves of FIG. 12. Specifically, a plurality of parallel flow channels 30A, 30B, and 30C are provided. Flow channel (i.e.: control line) 32 passes thereover across flow channels 30A, 30B, and 30C. Pressurization of control line 32 simultaneously shuts off flows F1, F2 and F3 by depressing membranes 25A, 25B, and 25C located at the intersections of control line 32 and flow channels 30A, 30B, and 30C.

[0184]FIG. 16 is a schematic illustration of a multiplexing system adapted to selectively permit fluid to flow through selected channels, as follows. The downward deflection of membranes separating the respective flow channels from a control line passing thereabove (for example, membranes 25A, 25B, and 25C in FIGS. 15A and 15B) depends strongly upon the membrane dimensions. Accordingly, by varying the widths of flow channel control line 32 in FIGS. 15A and 15B, it is possible to have a control line pass over multiple flow channels, yet only actuate (i.e.: seal) desired flow channels. FIG. 16 illustrates a schematic of such a system, as follows.

[0185] A plurality of parallel flow channels 30A, 30B, 30C, 30D, 30E and 30F are positioned under a plurality of parallel control lines 32A, 32B, 32C, 32D, 32E and 32F. Control channels 32A, 32B, 32C, 32D, 32E and 32F are adapted to shut off fluid flows F1, F2, F3, F4, F5 and F6 passing through parallel flow channels 30A, 30B, 30C, 30D, 30E and 30F using any of the valving systems described above, with the following modification.

[0186] Each of control lines 32A, 32B, 32C, 32D, 32E and 32F have both wide and narrow portions. For example, control line 32A is wide in locations disposed over flow channels 30A, 30C and 30E. Similarly, control line 32B is wide in locations disposed over flow channels 30B, 30D and 30F, and control line 32C is wide in locations disposed over flow channels 30A, 30B, 30E and 30F.

[0187] At the locations where the respective control line is wide, its pressurization will cause the membrane (25) separating the flow channel and the control line to depress significantly into the flow channel, thereby blocking the flow passage therethrough. Conversely, in the locations where the respective control line is narrow, membrane (25) will also be narrow. Accordingly, the same degree of pressurization will not result in membrane (25) becoming depressed into the flow channel (30). Therefore, fluid passage thereunder will not be blocked.

[0188] For example, when control line 32A is pressurized, it will block flows F1, F3 and F5 in flow channels 30A, 30C and 30E. Similarly, when control line 32C is pressurized, it will block flows F1, F2, F5 and F6 in flow channels 30A, 30B, 30E and 30F. As can be appreciated, more than one control line can be actuated at the same time. For example, control lines 32A and 32C can be pressurized simultaneously to block all fluid flow except F4 (with 32A blocking F1, F3 and F5; and 32C blocking F1, F2, F5 and F6).

[0189] By selectively pressurizing different control lines (32) both together and in various sequences, a great degree of fluid flow control can be achieved. Moreover, by extending the present system to more than six parallel flow channels (30) and more than four parallel control lines (32), and by varying the positioning of the wide and narrow regions of the control lines, very complex fluid flow control systems may be fabricated. A property of such systems is that it is possible to turn on any one flow channel out of n flow channels with only 2(log₂n) control lines.

[0190] 9. Selectively Addressable Reaction Chambers Along Flow Lines

[0191] In a further embodiment of the invention, illustrated in FIGS. 17A, 17B, 17C and 17D, a system for selectively directing fluid flow into one more of a plurality of reaction chambers disposed along a flow line is provided.

[0192]FIG. 17A shows a top view of a flow channel 30 having a plurality of reaction chambers 80A and 80B disposed therealong. Preferably flow channel 30 and reaction chambers 80A and 80B are formed together as recesses into the bottom surface of a first layer 100 of elastomer.

[0193]FIG. 17B shows a bottom plan view of another elastomeric layer 110 with two control lines 32A and 32B each being generally narrow, but having wide extending portions 33A and 33B formed as recesses therein.

[0194] As seen in the exploded view of FIG. 17C, and assembled view of FIG. 17D, elastomeric layer 110 is placed over elastomeric layer 100. Layers 100 and 110 are then bonded together, and the integrated system operates to selectively direct fluid flow F (through flow channel 30) into either or both of reaction chambers 80A and 80B, as follows. Pressurization of control line 32A will cause the membrane 25 (i.e.: the thin portion of elastomer layer 100 located below extending portion 33A and over regions 82A of reaction chamber 80A) to become depressed, thereby shutting off fluid flow passage in regions 82A, effectively sealing reaction chamber 80 from flow channel 30. As can also be seen, extending portion 33A is wider than the remainder of control line 32A. As such, pressurization of control line 32A will not result in control line 32A sealing flow channel 30.

[0195] As can be appreciated, either or both of control lines 32A and 32B can be actuated at once. When both control lines 32A and 32B are pressurized together, sample flow in flow channel 30 will enter neither of reaction chambers 80A or 80B.

[0196] The concept of selectably controlling fluid introduction into various addressable reaction chambers disposed along a flow line (FIGS. 17A-D) can be combined with concept of selectably controlling fluid flow through one or more of a plurality of parallel flow lines (FIG. 16) to yield a system in which a fluid sample or samples can be can be sent to any particular reaction chamber in an array of reaction chambers. An example of such a system is provided in FIG. 18, in which parallel control channels 32A, 32B and 32C with extending portions 34 (all shown in phantom) selectively direct fluid flows F1 and F2 into any of the array of reaction wells 80A, 80B, 80C or 80D as explained above; while pressurization of control lines 32C and 32D selectively shuts off flows F2 and F1, respectively.

[0197] In yet another novel embodiment, fluid passage between parallel flow channels is possible. Referring to FIG. 19, either or both of control lines 32A or 32D can be depressurized such that fluid flow through lateral passageways 35 (between parallel flow channels 30A and 30B) is permitted. In this aspect of the invention, pressurization of control lines 32C and 32D would shut flow channel 30A between 35A and 35B, and would also shut lateral passageways 35B. As such, flow entering as flow F1 would sequentially travel through 30A, 35A and leave 30B as flow F4.

[0198] 10. Switchable Flow Arrays

[0199] In yet another novel embodiment, fluid passage can be selectively directed to flow in either of two perpendicular directions. An example of such a “switchable flow array” system is provided in FIGS. 20A to 20D. FIG. 20A shows a bottom view of a first layer of elastomer 90, (or any other suitable substrate), having a bottom surface with a pattern of recesses forming a flow channel grid defined by an array of solid posts 92, each having flow channels passing therearound.

[0200] In preferred aspects, an additional layer of elastomer is bound to the top surface of layer 90 such that fluid flow can be selectively directed to move either in direction F1, or perpendicular direction F2. FIG. 20 is a bottom view of the bottom surface of the second layer of elastomer 95 showing recesses formed in the shape of alternating “vertical” control lines 96 and “horizontal” control lines 94. “Vertical” control lines 96 have the same width therealong, whereas “horizontal” control lines 94 have alternating wide and narrow portions, as shown.

[0201] Elastomeric layer 95 is positioned over top of elastomeric layer 90 such that “vertical” control lines 96 are positioned over posts 92 as shown in FIG. 20C and “horizontal” control lines 94 are positioned with their wide portions between posts 92, as shown in FIG. 20D.

[0202] As can be seen in FIG. 20C, when “vertical” control lines 96 are pressurized, the membrane of the integrated structure formed by the elastomeric layer initially positioned between layers 90 and 95 in regions 98 will be deflected downwardly over the array of flow channels such that flow in only able to pass in flow direction F2 (i.e.: vertically), as shown.

[0203] As can be seen in FIG. 20D, when “horizontal” control lines 94 are pressurized, the membrane of the integrated structure formed by the elastomeric layer initially positioned between layers 90 and 95 in regions 99 will be deflected downwardly over the array of flow channels, (but only in the regions where they are widest), such that flow in only able to pass in flow direction F1 (i.e.: horizontally), as shown.

[0204] The design illustrated in FIGS. 20 allows a switchable flow array to be constructed from only two elastomeric layers, with no vertical vias passing between control lines in different elastomeric layers required. If all vertical flow control lines 94 are connected, they may be pressurized from one input. The same is true for all horizontal flow control lines 96.

[0205] 11. Normally-Closed Valve Structure

[0206]FIGS. 7B and 7H above depict a valve structure in which the elastomeric membrane is moveable from a first relaxed position to a second actuated position in which the flow channel is blocked. However, the present invention is not limited to this particular valve configuration.

[0207] FIGS. 21A-21J show a variety of views of a normally-closed valve structure in which the elastomeric membrane is moveable from a first relaxed position blocking a flow channel, to a second actuated position in which the flow channel is open, utilizing a negative control pressure.

[0208]FIG. 21A shows a plan view, and FIG. 21B shows a cross sectional view along line 42B-42B′, of normally-closed valve 4200 in an unactuated state. Flow channel 4202 and control channel 4204 are formed in elastomeric block 4206 overlying substrate 4205. Flow channel 4202 includes a first portion 4202 a and a second portion 4202 b separated by separating portion 4208. Control channel 4204 overlies separating portion 4208. As shown in FIG. 42B, in its relaxed, unactuated position, separating portion 4008 remains positioned between flow channel portions 4202 a and 4202 b, interrupting flow channel 4202.

[0209]FIG. 21C shows a cross-sectional view of valve 4200 wherein separating portion 4208 is in an actuated position. When the pressure within control channel 4204 is reduced to below the pressure in the flow channel (for example by vacuum pump), separating portion 4208 experiences an actuating force drawing it into control channel 4204. As a result of this actuation force membrane 4208 projects into control channel 4204, thereby removing the obstacle to a flow of material through flow channel 4202 and creating a passageway 4203. Upon elevation of pressure within control channel 4204, separating portion 4208 will assume its natural position, relaxing back into and obstructing flow channel 4202.

[0210] The behavior of the membrane in response to an actuation force may be changed by varying the width of the overlying control channel. Accordingly, FIGS. 21D-42H show plan and cross-sectional views of an alternative embodiment of a normally-closed valve 4201 in which control channel 4207 is substantially wider than separating portion 4208. As shown in cross-sectional views FIG. 21E-F along line 42E-42E′ of FIG. 21D, because a larger area of elastomeric material is required to be moved during actuation, the actuation force necessary to be applied is reduced.

[0211]FIGS. 21G and H show a cross-sectional views along line 40G-40G′ of FIG. 21D. In comparison with the unactuated valve configuration shown in FIG. 21G, FIG. 21H shows that reduced pressure within wider control channel 4207 may under certain circumstances have the unwanted effect of pulling underlying elastomer 4206 away from substrate 4205, thereby creating undesirable void 4212.

[0212] Accordingly, FIG. 211 shows a plan view, and FIG. 21J shows a cross-sectional view along line 21J-21J′ of FIG. 211, of valve structure 4220 which avoids this problem by featuring control line 4204 with a minimum width except in segment 4204 a overlapping separating portion 4208. As shown in FIG. 21J, even under actuated conditions the narrower cross-section of control channel 4204 reduces the attractive force on the underlying elastomer material 4206, thereby preventing this elastomer material from being drawn away from substrate 4205 and creating an undesirable void.

[0213] While a normally-closed valve structure actuated in response to pressure is shown in FIGS. 21A-21J, a normally-closed valve in accordance with the present invention is not limited to this configuration. For example, the separating portion obstructing the flow channel could alternatively be manipulated by electric or magnetic fields, as described extensively above.

[0214] 12. Side-Actuated Valve

[0215] While the above description has focused upon microfabricated elastomeric valve structures in which a control channel is positioned above and separated by an intervening elastomeric membrane from an underlying flow channel, the present invention is not limited to this configuration. FIGS. 22A and 22B show plan views of one embodiment of a side-actuated valve structure in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention.

[0216]FIG. 22A shows side-actuated valve structure 4800 in an unactuated position. Flow channel 4802 is formed in elastomeric layer 4804. Control channel 4806 abutting flow channel 4802 is also formed in elastomeric layer 4804. Control channel 4806 is separated from flow channel 4802 by elastomeric membrane portion 4808. A second elastomeric layer (not shown) is bonded over bottom elastomeric layer 4804 to enclose flow channel 4802 and control channel 4806.

[0217]FIG. 22B shows side-actuated valve structure 4800 in an actuated position. In response to a build up of pressure within control channel 4806, membrane 4808 deforms into flow channel 4802, blocking flow channel 4802. Upon release of pressure within control channel 4806, membrane 4808 would relax back into control channel 4806 and open flow channel 4802.

[0218] While a side-actuated valve structure actuated in response to pressure is shown in FIGS. 22A and 22B, a side-actuated valve in accordance with the present invention is not limited to this configuration. For example, the elastomeric membrane portion located between the abutting flow and control channels could alternatively be manipulated by electric or magnetic fields, as described extensively above.

[0219] 13. Composite Structures

[0220] Microfabricated elastomeric structures of the present invention may be combined with non-elastomeric materials to create composite structures. FIG. 23 shows a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of a composite structure in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 23 shows composite valve structure 5700 including first, thin elastomer layer 5702 overlying semiconductor-type substrate 5704 having channel 5706 formed therein. Second, thicker elastomer layer 5708 overlies first elastomer layer 5702. Actuation of first elastomer layer 5702 to drive it into channel 5706, will cause composite structure 5700 to operate as a valve.

[0221]FIG. 24 shows a cross-sectional view of a variation on this theme, wherein thin elastomer layer 5802 is sandwiched between two hard, semiconductor substrates 5804 and 5806, with lower substrate 5804 featuring channel 5808. Again, actuation of thin elastomer layer 5802 to drive it into channel 5808 will cause composite structure 5810 to operate as a valve.

[0222] The structures shown in FIG. 23 or 24 may be fabricated utilizing either the multilayer soft lithography or encapsulation techniques described above. In the multilayer soft lithography method, the elastomer layer(s) would be formed and then placed over the semiconductor substrate bearing the channel. In the encapsulation method, the channel would be first formed in the semiconductor substrate, and then the channel would be filled with a sacrificial material such as photoresist. The elastomer would then be formed in place over the substrate, with removal of the sacrificial material producing the channel overlaid by the elastomer membrane. As is discussed in detail below in connection with bonding of elastomer to other types of materials, the encapsulation approach may result in a stronger seal between the elastomer membrane component and the underlying nonelastomer substrate component.

[0223] As shown in FIGS. 23 and 24, a composite structure in accordance with embodiments of the present invention may include a hard substrate that bears a passive feature such as a channels. However, the present invention is not limited to this approach, and the underlying hard substrate may bear active features that interact with an elastomer component bearing a recess. This is shown in FIG. 25, wherein composite structure 5900 includes elastomer component 5902 containing recess 5904 having walls 5906 and ceiling 5908. Ceiling 5908 forms flexible membrane portion 5909. Elastomer component 5902 is sealed against substantially planar nonelastomeric component 5910 that includes active device 5912. Active device 5912 may interact with material present in recess 5904 and/or flexible membrane portion 5909.

[0224] Many Types of active structures may be present in the nonelastomer substrate. Active structures that could be present in an underlying hard substrate include, but are not limited to, resistors, capacitors, photodiodes, transistors, chemical field effect transistors (chem FET's), amperometric/coulometric electrochemical sensors, fiber optics, fiber optic interconnects, light emitting diodes, laser diodes, vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSEL's), micromirrors, accelerometers, pressure sensors, flow sensors, CMOS imaging arrays, CCD cameras, electronic logic, microprocessors, thermistors, Peltier coolers, waveguides, resistive heaters, chemical sensors, strain gauges, inductors, actuators (including electrostatic, magnetic, electromagnetic, bimetallic, piezoelectric, shape-memory-alloy based, and others), coils, magnets, electromagnets, magnetic sensors (such as those used in hard drives, superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDS) and other types), radio frequency sources and receivers, microwave frequency sources and receivers, sources and receivers for other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, radioactive particle counters, and electrometers.

[0225] As is well known in the art, a vast variety of technologies can be utilized to fabricate active features in semiconductor and other types of hard substrates, including but not limited printed circuit board (PCB) technology, CMOS, surface micromachining, bulk micromachining, printable polymer electronics, and TFT and other amorphous/polycrystalline techniques as are employed to fabricate laptop and flat screen displays.

[0226] A variety of approaches can be employed to seal the elastomeric structure against the nonelastomeric substrate, ranging from the creation of a Van der Waals bond between the elastomeric and nonelastomeric components, to creation of covalent or ionic bonds between the elastomeric and nonelastomeric components of the composite structure. Example approaches to sealing the components together are discussed below, approximately in order of increasing strength.

[0227] A first approach is to rely upon the simple hermetic seal resulting from Van der Waals bonds formed when a substantially planar elastomer layer is placed into contact with a substantially planar layer of a harder, non-elastomer material. In one embodiment, bonding of RTV elastomer to a glass substrate created a composite structure capable of withstanding up to about 3-4 psi of pressure. This may be sufficient for many potential applications.

[0228] A second approach is to utilize a liquid layer to assist in bonding. One example of this involves bonding elastomer to a hard glass substrate, wherein a weakly acidic solution (5 μl HCl in H₂O, pH 2) was applied to a glass substrate. The elastomer component was then placed into contact with the glass substrate, and the composite structure baked at 37° C. to remove the water. This resulted in a bond between elastomer and non-elastomer able to withstand a pressure of about 20 psi. In this case, the acid may neutralize silanol groups present on the glass surface, permitting the elastomer and nonelastomer to enter into good Van der Waals contact with each other.

[0229] Exposure to ethanol can also cause device components to adhere together. In one embodiment, an RTV elastomer material and a glass substrate were washed with ethanol and then dried under Nitrogen. The RTV elastomer was then placed into contact with the glass and the combination baked for 3 hours at 80° C. Optionally, the RTV may also be exposed to a vacuum to remove any air bubbles trapped between the slide and the RTV. The strength of the adhesion between elastomer and glass using this method has withstood pressures in excess of 35 psi. The adhesion created using this method is not permanent, and the elastomer may be peeled off of the glass, washed, and resealed against the glass. This ethanol washing approach can also be employed used to cause successive layers of elastomer to bond together with sufficient strength to resist a pressure of 30 psi. In alternative embodiments, chemicals such as other alcohols or diols could be used to promote adhesion between layers.

[0230] An embodiment of a method of promoting adhesion between layers of a microfabricated structure in accordance with the present invention comprises exposing a surface of a first component layer to a chemical, exposing a surface of a second component layer to the chemical, and placing the surface of the first component layer into contact with the surface of the second elastomer layer.

[0231] A third approach is to create a covalent chemical bond between the elastomer component and functional groups introduced onto the surface of a nonelastomer component. Examples of derivitization of a nonelastomer substrate surface to produce such functional groups include exposing a glass substrate to agents such as vinyl silane or aminopropyltriethoxy silane (APTES), which may be useful to allow bonding of the glass to silicone elastomer and polyurethane elastomer materials, respectively.

[0232] A fourth approach is to create a covalent chemical bond between the elastomer component and a functional group native to the surface of the nonelastomer component. For example, RTV elastomer can be created with an excess of vinyl groups on its surface. These vinyl groups can be caused to react with corresponding functional groups present on the exterior of a hard substrate material, for example the Si—H bonds prevalent on the surface of a single crystal silicon substrate after removal of native oxide by etching. In this example, the strength of the bond created between the elastomer component and the nonelastomer component has been observed to exceed the materials strength of the elastomer components.

[0233] 14. Cell Pen/Cell Cage

[0234] In yet a further application of the present invention, an elastomeric structure can be utilized to manipulate organisms or other biological material. FIGS. 26A-26D show plan views of one embodiment of a cell pen structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0235] Cell pen array 4400 features an array of orthogonally-oriented flow channels 4402, with an enlarged “pen” structure 4404 at the intersection of alternating flow channels. Valve 4406 is positioned at the entrance and exit of each pen structure 4404. Peristaltic pump structures 4408 are positioned on each horizontal flow channel and on the vertical flow channels lacking a cell pen structure.

[0236] Cell pen array 4400 of FIG. 26A has been loaded with cells A-H that have been previously sorted. FIGS. 26B-26C show the accessing and removal of individually stored cell C by 1) opening valves 4406 on either side of adjacent pens 4404 a and 4404 b, 2) pumping horizontal flow channel 4402 a to displace cells C and G, and then 3) pumping vertical flow channel 4402 b to remove cell C. FIG. 26D shows that second cell G is moved back into its prior position in cell pen array 4400 by reversing the direction of liquid flow through horizontal flow channel 4402 a.

[0237] The cell pen array 4404 described above is capable of storing materials within a selected, addressable position for ready access. However, living organisms such as cells may require a continuous intake of foods and expulsion of wastes in order to remain viable. Accordingly, FIGS. 27A and 27B show plan and cross-sectional views (along line 45B-45B′) respectively, of one embodiment of a cell cage structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0238] Cell cage 4500 is formed as an enlarged portion 4500 a of a flow channel 4501 in an elastomeric block 4503 in contact with substrate 4505. Cell cage 4500 is similar to an individual cell pen as described above in FIGS. 26A-26D, except that ends 4500 b and 4500 c of cell cage 4500 do not completely enclose interior region 4500 a. Rather, ends 4500 a and 4500 b of cage 4500 are formed by a plurality of retractable pillars 4502. Pillars 4502 may be part of a membrane structure of a nornally-closed valve structure as described extensively above in connection with FIGS. 21A-21J.

[0239] Specifically, control channel 4504 overlies pillars 4502. When the pressure in control channel 4504 is reduced, elastomeric pillars 4502 are drawn upward into control channel 4504, thereby opening end 4500 b of cell cage 4500 and permitting a cell to enter. Upon elevation of pressure in control channel 4504, pillars 4502 relax downward against substrate 4505 and prevent a cell from exiting cage 4500.

[0240] Elastomeric pillars 4502 are of a sufficient size and number to prevent movement of a cell out of cage 4500, but also include gaps 4508 which allow the flow of nutrients into cage interior 4500 a in order to sustain cell(s) stored therein. Pillars 4502 on opposite end 4500 c are similarly configured beneath second control channel 4506 to permit opening of the cage and removal of the cell as desired.

[0241] The cross-flow channel architecture illustrated shown in FIGS. 26A-26D can be used to perform functions other than the cell pen just described. For example, the cross-flow channel architecture can be utilized in mixing applications.

[0242] This is shown in FIGS. 28A-B, which illustrate a plan view of mixing steps performed by a microfabricated structure in accordance another embodiment of the present invention. Specifically, portion 7400 of a microfabricated mixing structure comprises first flow channel 7402 orthogonal to and intersecting with second flow channel 7404. Control channels 7406 overlie flow channels 7402 and 7404 and form valve pairs 7408 a-b and 7408 c-d that surround each intersection 7412.

[0243] As shown in FIG. 28A, valve pair 7408 a-b is initially opened while valve pair 7408 c-d is closed, and fluid sample 7410 is flowed to intersection 7412 through flow channel 7402. Valve pair 7408 c-d is then actuated, trapping fluid sample 7410 at intersection 7412.

[0244] Next, as shown in FIG. 28B, valve pairs 7408 a-b and 7408 c-d are opened, such that fluid sample 7410 is injected from intersection 7412 into flow channel 7404 bearing a cross-flow of fluid. The process shown in FIGS. 28A-B can be repeated to accurately dispense any number of fluid samples down cross-flow channel 7404.

[0245] While the embodiment shown and described above in connection with FIGS. 28A-28B utilizes linked valve pairs on opposite sides of the flow channel intersections, this is not required by the present invention. Other configurations, including linking of adjacent valves of an intersection, or independent actuation of each valve surrounding an intersection, are possible to provide the desired flow characteristics. With the independent valve actuation approach however, it should be recognized that separate control structures would be utilized for each valve, complicating device layout.

[0246] 15. Metering By Volume Exclusion

[0247] Many high throughput screening and diagnostic applications call for accurate combination and of different reagents in a reaction chamber. Given that it is frequently necessary to prime the channels of a microfluidic device in order to ensure fluid flow, it may be difficult to ensure mixed solutions do not become diluted or contaminated by the contents of the reaction chamber prior to sample introduction.

[0248] Volume exclusion is one technique enabling precise metering of the introduction of fluids into a reaction chamber. In this approach, a reaction chamber may be completely or partially emptied prior to sample injection. This method reduces contamination from residual contents of the chamber contents, and may be used to accurately meter the introduction of solutions in a reaction chamber.

[0249] Specifically, FIGS. 29A-29D show cross-sectional views of a reaction chamber in which volume exclusion is employed to meter reactants. FIG. 29A shows a cross-sectional view of portion 6300 of a microfluidic device comprising first elastomer layer 6302 overlying second elastomer layer 6304. First elastomer layer 6302 includes control chamber 6306 in fluid communication with a control channel (not shown). Control chamber 6306 overlies and is separated from dead-end reaction chamber 6308 of second elastomer layer 6304 by membrane 6310. Second elastomer layer 6304 further comprises flow channel 6312 leading to dead-end reaction chamber 6308.

[0250]FIG. 29B shows the result of a pressure increase within control chamber 6306. Specifically, increased control chamber pressure causes membrane 6310 to flex downward into reaction chamber 6308, reducing by volume V the effective volume of reaction chamber 6308. This in turn excludes an equivalent volume V of reactant from reaction chamber 6308, such that volume V of first reactant X is output from flow channel 6312. The exact correlation between a pressure increase in control chamber 6306 and the volume of material output from flow channel 6312 can be precisely calibrated.

[0251] As shown in FIG. 29C, while elevated pressure is maintained within control chamber 6306, volume V′ of second reactant Y is placed into contact with flow channel 6312 and reaction chamber 6308.

[0252] In the next step shown in FIG. 29D, pressure within control chamber 6306 is reduced to original levels. As a result, membrane 6310 relaxes and the effective volume of reaction chamber 6308 increases. Volume V of second reactant Y is sucked into the device. By varying the relative size of the reaction and control chambers, it is possible to accurately mix solutions at a specified relative concentration. It is worth noting that the amount of the second reactant Y that is sucked into the device is solely dependent upon the excluded volume V, and is independent of volume V′ of Y made available at the opening of the flow channel.

[0253] While FIGS. 29A-29D show a simple embodiment of the present invention involving a single reaction chamber, in more complex embodiments parallel structures of hundreds or thousands of reaction chambers could be actuated by a pressure increase in a single control line.

[0254] Moreover, while the above description illustrates two reactants being combined at a relative concentration that fixed by the size of the control and reaction chambers, a volume exclusion technique could be employed to combine several reagents at variable concentrations in a single reaction chamber. One possible approach is to use several, separately addressable control chambers above each reaction chamber. An example of this architecture would be to have ten separate control lines instead of a single control chamber, allowing ten equivalent volumes to be pushed out or sucked in.

[0255] Another possible approach would utilize a single control chamber overlying the entire reaction chamber, with the effective volume of the reaction chamber modulated by varying the control chamber pressure. In this manner, analog control over the effective volume of the reaction chamber is possible. Analog volume control would in turn permit the combination of many solutions reactants at arbitrary relative concentrations.

[0256] An embodiment of a method of metering a volume of fluid in accordance with the present invention comprises providing a chamber having a volume in an elastomeric block separated from a control recess by an elastomeric membrane, and supplying a pressure to the control recess such that the membrane is deflected into the chamber and the volume is reduced by a calibrated amount, thereby excluding from the chamber the calibrated volume of fluid.

[0257] II. Crystallization Structures and Methods

[0258] High throughput screening of crystallization of a target material, or purification of small samples of target material by recrystallization, is accomplished by simultaneously introducing a solution of the target material at known concentrations into a plurality of chambers of a microfabricated fluidic device. The microfabricated fluidic device is then manipulated to vary solution conditions in the chambers, thereby simultaneously providing a large number of crystallization environments. Control over changed solvent conditions may result from a variety of techniques, including but not limited to metering of volumes of a crystallizing agent into the chamber by volume exclusion, by entrapment of liquid volumes determined by the dimensions of the microfabricated structure, or by cross-channel injection into a matrix of junctions defined by intersecting orthogonal flow channels.

[0259] Crystals resulting from crystallization in accordance with embodiments of the present invention can be utilized for x-ray crystallography to determine three-dimensional molecular structure. Alternatively, where high throughput screening in accordance with embodiments of the present invention does not produce crystals of sufficient size for direct x-ray crystallography, the crystals can be utilized as seed crystals for further crystallization experiments. Promising screening results can also be utilized as a basis for further screening focusing on a narrower spectrum of crystallization conditions, in a manner analogous to the use of standardized sparse matrix techniques.

[0260] Systems and methods in accordance with embodiments of the present invention are particularly suited to crystallizing larger biological macromolecules or aggregates thereof, such as proteins, nucleic acids, viruses, and protein/ligand complexes.

[0261] However, crystallization in accordance with the present invention is not limited to any particular type of target material.

[0262] As employed in the following discussion, the term “crystallizing agent” describes a substance that is introduced to a solution of target material to lessen solubility of the target material and thereby induce crystal formation. Crystallizing agents typically include countersolvents in which the target exhibits reduced solubility, but may also describe materials affecting solution pH or materials such as polyethylene glycol that effectively reduce the volume of solvent available to the target material. The term “countersolvent” is used interchangeably with “crystallizing agent”.

[0263] 1. Crystallization by Volume Exclusion

[0264]FIG. 30 shows a plan view of one embodiment of a crystallization system that allows mass crystallization attempts employing the volume exclusion technique described in conjunction with prior FIGS. 29A-D.

[0265] Crystallization system 7200 comprises control channel 7202 and flow channels 7204 a, 7204 b, 7204 c, and 7204 d. Each of flow channels 7204 a, 7204 b, 7204 c, and 7204 d feature dead-end chambers 7206 that serve as the site for crystallization. Control channel 7202 features a network of control chambers 7205 of varying widths that overlie and are separated from chambers 7206 by membranes 7208 having the same widths as control chambers 7205. Although not shown to clarify the drawing, a second control featuring a second network of membranes may be utilized to create stop valves for selectively opening and closing the openings to dead-end chambers 7206. A full discussion of the function and role of such stop valves is provided below in conjunction with FIG. 31.

[0266] Operation of crystallization system 7200 is as follows. Initially, an aqueous solution containing the target protein is flushed through each of flow channels 7204 a, 7204 b, 7204 c, and 7204 d, filling each dead-end chamber 7206. Next, a high pressure is applied to control channel 7202 to deflect membranes 7208 into the underlying chambers 7206, excluding a given volume from chamber 7206 and flushing this excluded volume of the original protein solution out of chamber 7206.

[0267] Next, while pressure is maintained in control channel 7202, a different countersolvent is flowed into each flow channel 7204 a, 7204 b, 7204 c, and 7204 d. Pressure is then released in control line 7202, and membranes 7208 relax back into their original position, permitting the formerly excluded volume of countersolvent to enter chambers 7206 and mix with the original protein solution. Because of the differing widths of control chambers 7205 and underlying membranes 7208, a variety of volumes of the countersolvent enters into chambers 7206 during this process.

[0268] For example, chambers 7206 a in the first two rows of system 7200 do not receive any countersolvent because no volume is excluded by an overlying membrane. Chambers 7106 b in the second two rows of system 7200 receive a volume of countersolvent that is 1:5 with the original protein solution. Chambers 7206 c in the third two rows of system 7200 receive a volume of countersolvent that is 1:3 with the original protein solution. Chambers 7206 d in the fourth two rows of system 7200 receive a volume of countersolvent that is 1:2 with the original protein solution, and chambers 7206 e in the fifth two rows of system 7200 receive a volume of countersolvent that is 4:5 with the original protein solution.

[0269] Once the countersolvent has been introduced into the chambers 7206, they may be resealed against the environment by again applying a high pressure to control line 7202 to deflect the membranes into the chambers. Resealing may be necessary given that crystallization can require on the order of days or weeks to occur. Where visual inspection of a chamber reveals the presence of a high quality crystal, the crystal may be physically removed from the chamber of the disposable elastomer system.

[0270] 2. Crystallization by Volume Entrapment

[0271] While the above description has described a crystallization system that relies upon volume exclusion to meter varying amounts of countersolvent, the invention is not limited to this particular embodiment. Accordingly, FIG. 31 shows a plan view of an alternative crystallization system wherein metering of different volumes of countersolvent is determined by photolithography during formation of the flow channels.

[0272] Crystallization system 7500 comprises flow channels 7504 a, 7504 b, 7504 c, and 7504 d. Each of flow channels 7504 a, 7504 b, 7504 c, and 7504 d feature dead-end chambers 7506 that serve as the site for recrystallization.

[0273] System 7500 further comprises two sets of control channels. First set 7502 of control channels overlie the opening of chambers 7506 and define stop valves 7503 that, when actuated, block access to chambers 7506. Second control channels 7505 overlie flow channels 7504 a-d and define segment valves 7507 that, when actuated, block flow between different segments 7514 of a flow channel 7404.

[0274] Operation of crystallization system 7500 is as follows. Initially, an aqueous solution containing the target protein is flushed through each of flow channels 7504 a, 7504 b, 7504 c, and 7504 d, filling dead-end chambers 7506. Next, a high pressure is applied to control channel 7502 to actuate stop valves 7503, thereby preventing fluid from entering or exiting chambers 7506.

[0275] While maintaining stop valves 7503 closed, each flow channel 7504 a-d is then filled with a different countersolvent. Next, second control line 7505 is pressurized, isolating flow channels 7504 a-d into segments 7514 and trapping differing volumes of countersolvent. Specifically, as shown in FIG. 31 segments 7514 are of unequal volumes. During formation of protein crystallization structure 7500 by soft lithography, photolithographic techniques are employed to define flow channels 7504 a-d having segments 7514 of different widths 7514 a and lengths 7514 b.

[0276] Thus, when pressure is released from first control line 7502 and stop valves 7503 open, a different volume of countersolvent from the various segments 7514 may diffuse into chambers 7506. In this manner, precise dimensions defined by photolithography can be employed to determine the volume of countersolvent trapped in the flow channel segments and then introduced to the protein solution. This volume of countersolvent in turn establishes the environment for crystallization of the protein.

[0277] While the crystallization system described in connection with FIG. 31 utilizes the dimensions of the flow channels to dictate the volumes of countersolvents introduced into the crystallization chamber, the present invention is not limited to this approach.

[0278]FIG. 32 shows a microfabricated crystallization system wherein the volumes of countersolvent metered to the recrystallization chambers is dictated by the angle of orientation of a control channel relative to underlying flow channels. Specifically, microfabricated crystallization system 8000 includes adjacent serpentine flow channels 8002 a and 8002 b connected through a series of bridging channels 8004. First control line 8006 overlies bridging channels 8004 and thereby forms valves 8008 isolating serpentine channels 8002 a and 8002 b from each other. Second control line 8010 includes projections over portions of first serpentine channel 8002 a defining valves 8020.

[0279] Initially, first control line 8006 is closed while second and third control lines 8010 and 8012 remain open. First serpentine channel 8002 a is filled with target material solution through inlet 8014. While first serpentine channel 8002 a of FIG. 31 is depicted as having an outlet 8015, channel 8002 a may also be dead-ended. Second serpentine channel 8002 b is filled with a countersolvent to be mixed with the target material solution. As with first serpentine channel 8002 a, second serpentine channel 8002 b may also terminate at an outlet or a dead end.

[0280] Next, second control channel 8010 is activated to close valves 8020, thereby isolating equal volumes of target solution trapped in region 8022. Third control channel 8012 is also activated to close valves 8024, thereby isolating countersolvent trapped in region 8026 b. However, because third control channel 8012 runs obliquely across second serpentine channel 8002 b, the volumes of countersolvent entrapped between valves 8008 and 8024 is unequal and becomes progressively smaller.

[0281] Next, first control channel 8006 is activated and valves 8008 opened. The volumes of countersolvent entrapped in region 8026 are now free to diffuse into the volume of sample entrapped in region 8022, with the respective ratios of mixing determined by the relative angular orientation of third control channel 8012.

[0282] The crystallization system of FIG. 32 permits one type of countersolvent to be introduced to the sample through a single serpentine channel. However, in order to facilitate high throughput crystallization conditions, a series of crystallization systems as shown in FIG. 32 sharing a common sample source could be fabricated on a substrate, with different countersolvent provided to each system.

[0283] Moreover, other variations of crystallization system embodiment utilizing metering of countersolvent volume by entrapment are also possible. For example, in one alternative embodiment the relative volumes of a sample could be determined by the angle of orientation of the second control channel overlying the samples. Moreover, the shape of the flow channels on either side of the bridging channels could be modified to provide additional volume between successive valves. Other lithographically determined dimensions such as flow channel depth and width could also be controlled to affect the relative volumes of countersolvent and sample.

[0284] 3. Crystallization by Cross-Channel Injection

[0285] The cross-flow channel architecture illustrated in prior FIGS. 26A-26D can be used to perform high throughput crystallization of a target material. This approach is shown in FIG. 33, which illustrates an alternative embodiment of a crystallization structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0286] The microfabricated cross-channel high throughput crystallization structure of FIG. 32 comprises a five-by-five array 8100 of cross-injection junctions 8102 formed by the intersection of parallel horizontal flow channels 8104 and parallel vertical flow channels 8106. Array 8100 enables the mixing and storage of each sample S1-S5 with each countersolvent C1-C5, for a total of 5×5=25 simultaneous crystallization conditions. Movement of the fluid along horizontal flow channels 8104 is controlled in parallel by peristaltic pumps 8108 formed by overlying control channels 8110. Movement of fluid along vertical flow channels 8106 is controlled in parallel by peristatic pump 8112 formed by overlying control channels 8114. As shown in prior FIG. 28A-B, column valves 8116 and row valves 8118 surround each junction 8102 formed by the intersection of horizontal and vertical flow lines 8104 and 8106.

[0287] Column valves 8116 blocking flow in the vertical direction are controlled by a single control line 8120. Row valves 8110 blocking flow in the horizontal direction are controlled a single control line 8122. For purposes of illustration, only the first portion of control lines 8120 and 8122 are shown in FIG. 33, it is to be understood that every row and column valve is controlled by these control lines.

[0288] During crystallization, horizontal flow channels 8104 introduce samples of five different concentrations of target material to junctions 8102, while vertical flow channels 8106 introduce to junctions 8102 five different concentrations and/or compositions of countersolvent. Through the metering technique described below in connection with FIGS. 34A-34C, all 5×5=25 possible combinations of sample and countersolvent are stored at the 5×5=25 junctions 8102 of array 8100.

[0289] FIGS. 34A-34C show enlarged plan views of adjacent junctions of array 8100 of FIG. 32. For purposes of illustration, the control lines are omitted in FIGS. 34A-34C. Also, the lateral distance between junctions is considerably shortened, and in actuality the junctions would be separated by a considerable distance to prevent cross-contamination.

[0290] In a first step shown in FIG. 34A, column valves 8116 are closed and a sample of target material at a given concentration is flowed down first each of horizontal flow channels 8104. In the array portion shown enlarged in FIG. 34A, inter-row valve regions 8126 are thereby charged with sample material S1.

[0291] Next, as shown in FIG. 34B, row valves 8118 are closed, and column valves 8116 are opened. Countersolvents of different concentrations and/or compositions are flowed down each of vertical flow channels 8106. In the array portion enlarged in FIG. 34B, junctions 8102 are thereby charged with countersolvents C1 and C2.

[0292] As shown in FIG. 34C, column valves 8116 are closed and row valves 8118 are opened. Pumping of the peripheral peristaltic pumps of the array causes the sample in inter-valve regions 8126 to mingle with countersolvent of junctions 8102 as both are flowed into junctions 8102 and inter-valve regions 8126. Row valves 8118 are then closed as column valves 8116 are maintained closed to prevent cross-contamination between crystallization sites. In the array portion enlarged in FIG. 34C, crystallization may then take place in solvent environments S1C1 and S1C2.

[0293] In an alternative embodiment of the present invention, separate control lines could be used to control alternate row valves. In such an embodiment, once the inter-row valve regions and the junctions have been charged with sample and countersolvent as described above in FIGS. 34A and 34B, in the third step the alternate row valves are opened such that sample in inter-row valve regions mixes by diffusion with countersolvent injunctions. This alternative embodiment does not require pumping, and the closed state of the other set of alternate row valves prevents cross-contamination.

[0294] 4. Crystallization Utilizing Diffusion/Dialysis

[0295] One conventional approach to crystallization has been to effect a gradual change in target solution conditions by introducing a crystallizing agent through slow diffusion, or slow diffusion in conjunction with dialysis. For example, in the crystallization of proteins, imposing a dialysis membrane between sample and crystallizing agent results in diffusion of crystallizing agent into the protein solution without reduction in concentration of the protein sample.

[0296] Crystallization methods and structures in accordance with embodiments of the present invention utilizing slow diffusion and/or dialysis may employ a variety of techniques. Several possible approaches are described below.

[0297] In a first embodiment shown in FIG. 35, microfabricated elastomeric structure 8200 features chambers 8202 of varying volumes that may be initially charged with samples through pump/valve network. Chambers 8202 are also in fluid communication with face 8200 a of structure 8200. Dialysis membrane 8204 is fixed to face 8200 a, and then the entire microfabricated structure 8200 is immersed in bulk countersolvent reservoir 8200 as shown. Over time, countersolvent from reservoir 8206 diffuses across membrane 8204 and into chambers 8202 and solvent from the sample diffuses across membrane 8204 into reservoir 8206. Protein of the sample is prevented from diffusing by membrane 8204. When the desired solution conditions are achieved, a crystal may form in chamber 8202.

[0298] The advantage of this approach to crystallization is simplicity, in that once charged with sample, the microfabricated elastomeric structure is simply dunked in the countersolvent. This approach also enables direct monitoring of solution conditions, as the pH, temperature, and other aspects of the bulk countersolvent reservoir can be monitored for changes using conventional detection methods. Moreover, in alternative embodiments of the present invention, a continuous supply of dissolved target material may be flowed past the dialysis membrane to ensure an adequate supply for growth of large crystals.

[0299] Embodiments in accordance with the present invention may also be implemented in conjunction with double dialysis, wherein rate of change in condition of the target solution is slowed by imposing a second dialysis membrane and an intermediate solution between the crystallizing agent and the first dialysis membrane. In such an approach, the intermediate solution serves to buffer changes in the target solution arising from diffusion of crystallizing agent. In the technique just described, double dialysis could be accomplished by immersing the microfluidic structure and the associated dialysis membrane in an intermediate solution in fluid communication with a crystallizing agent reservoir through a second dialysis membrane.

[0300] A second embodiment of the present invention employing dialysis techniques is illustrated in FIG. 36. This approach utilizes dialysis membrane 8300 sandwiched between opposing microfabricated elastomeric structures 8302 and 8304. Upon assembly of this structure and proper alignment of respective chambers/channels 8306 of opposing structures 8302 and 8304, countersolvent from reservoirs 8308 of structure 8302 will diffuse across membrane 8300 into the corresponding recrystallization chamber 8310 of structure 8304. Solvent from crystallization chamber 8310 will correspondingly diffuse across membrane 8300 into reservoir 8308 of first structure 8302. However, protein in crystallization chamber 8310 will be prevented by membrane 8300 from similarly diffusing, and will thus be retained in chamber 8310 as the solution environment is changed.

[0301] Double dialysis employing a structure similar to that of FIG. 36 could be accomplished by fabricating an intermediate chamber between the crystallization chamber and the first dialysis membrane, and then filling this intermediate chamber with a buffer solution. A second dialysis membrane could be introduced into the microfabricated structure between the intermediate and crystallization chambers in the form of a plug of a cross-linked polymer, as described below in FIG. 37.

[0302] The embodiments just described in FIGS. 35 and 36 utilize large scale bonding of a dialysis membrane to an entire face of a microfabricated structure. However, other embodiments may utilize the insertion or placement of a dialysis membrane within local regions of a microfabricated structure. This is shown in FIG. 36, wherein a dialysis membrane is created within the microfabricated structure in the form of a polyacrylamide gel.

[0303] Specifically, recrystallization structure 8400 of FIG. 37 includes first chamber 8402 in fluid communication with dead-ended chamber 8404 through horizontal flow channel 8406. The intersection of horizontal flow channel 8406 and vertical flow channel 8408 creates junction 8410. First valve set 8412 is defined by the overlap of first control channel 8414 and portions 8416 a of horizontal flow channel 8406 on opposite sides of junction 8410. Second valve set 8416 is defined by the overlap of second control channel 8418 and portions 8408 a of vertical flow channel 8408 on opposite sides of junction 8410.

[0304] Operation of this embodiment is as follows. Second valve set 8416 is closed while first valve set 8412 is opened. Dead-ended chamber 8404 is charged with a sample through horizontal flow channel 8406.

[0305] Next, second valve set 8416 is opened and first valve set 8412 is closed. Vertical flow channel 8408 is charged with a cross-linkable polymer 8420 such as a polyacrylamide gel. Cross-linking of the polymer within vertical flow channel is then induced, for example by irradiation of the flow channel or by mixing slow acting crosslinking chemicals with the polymer prior or during charging of the vertical flow channel with gel. Once the desired amount of cross-linking of the polymer has occurred, it will serve as a selective barrier to diffusion (i.e. as a dialysis membrane).

[0306] Finally, second valve set 8416 is closed and first valve set 8412 is again opened, and first chamber 8402 is charged with countersolvent. This countersolvent diffuses across cross-linked polymer membrane 8420 to alter the solution conditions in dead-ended chamber 8404.

[0307] Double dialysis to further mediate change in target material solution conditions over time, could be effected by introducing a microfabricated chamber and second polyacrylamide plug intermediate to the crystallization chamber and the chamber containing the crystallizing agent.

[0308] In any of the embodiments of double dialysis described above, the second dialysis membrane could be eliminated, and diffusion of crystallizing agent across the intennediate solution relied upon to slow changes in condition of the target material solution. Diffusion rates of the crystallizing agent across the intermediate solution could be controlled by the physical dimensions (i.e. length, cross-section) of the intervening structure, such as a microfabricated chamber/channel or a capillary or larger diameter tube connecting reservoirs in which microfabricated structure has been immersed.

[0309] In other embodiments, a microfabricated elastomer structure may be sliced vertically, often preferably along a channel cross section. In accordance with embodiments of the present invention, a non-elastomer component may be inserted into the elastomer structure that has been opened by such a cut, with the elastomer structure then resealed. One example of such an approach is shown in FIGS. 38A-38C, which illustrates cross-sectional views of a process for forming a flow channel having a membrane positioned therein. Specifically, FIG. 38A shows a cross-section of a portion of device 6200 including elastomer membrane 6202 overlying flow channel 6204, and elastomer substrate 6206.

[0310]FIG. 38B shows the results of cutting device 6200 along vertical line 6208 extending along the length of flow channel 6204, such that halves 6200 a and 6200 b are formed. FIG. 38C shows insertion of permeable membrane element 6210 between halves 6200 a and 6200 b, followed by attachment of halves 6200 a and 6200 b to permeable membrane 6210. As a result of this configuration, the flow channel of the device actually comprises channel portions 6204 a and 6204 b separated by permeable membrane 6210.

[0311] The structure of FIG. 38C could be utilized in a variety of applications. For example, the membrane could be used to perform dialysis, altering the salt concentration of samples in the flow channel. This would result in a change of the solution environment of a crystallized target material.

[0312] While embodiments of the present invention discussed so far utilize diffusion of crystallizing agent in the liquid phase, vapor diffusion is another technique that has been employed to induce crystal formation. Accordingly, FIGS. 39-41 show a plan view of several embodiments of vapor diffusion structures in accordance with embodiments of the present invention.

[0313]FIG. 39 shows a simple embodiment of a vapor diffusion structure 8600, wherein first microfabricated chamber 8602 having inlet 8602 a and outlet 8602 b and second microfabricated chamber 8604 having inlet 8604 a and outlet 8604 b are connected by cross flow channel 8606. Initially, the entire structure 8600 is filled with air. Cross-valves 8608 are then actuated to trap air within cross-flow channel 8606. Target solution is then introduced to first chamber 8602 through inlet 8602 a, with displaced air escaping through outlet 8602 b. Crystallizing agent is introduced to second chamber 8604 through inlet 8604 a, with displaced air escaping through outlet 8604 b.

[0314] Cross-valves 8608 are then opened, such that air remains trapped within cross-flow channel 8606 between sample and crystallizing agent. Vapor diffusion of solvent and crystallizing agent may then slowly take place across the air pocket of cross-flow channel 8606 to change the solution conditions and thereby induce crystal formation in first chamber 8602. Structure 8600 may be sealed against the outside environment by valves 8610 during this process.

[0315] While the above embodiment is functional, the air pocket trapped between the liquid-filled chambers may move or deform in response to environmental conditions, permitting unwanted direct fluid contact between target material solution and crystallizing agent. It is therefore desirable to anchor the air pocket at specific locations within the microfabricated structure.

[0316] Accordingly, FIG. 40 shows an alternative embodiment of a structure for performing crystallization by vapor diffusion. Specifically, structure 8700 comprises chamber 8702 having first inlet 8704 at a first end 8702 a, second inlet 8706 at a second end 8702 b, and vent 8707 at middle portion 8702 c. Middle portion 8702 c of chamber 8702 includes hydrophobic region 8708 which may be formed by microcontact printing. Microcontact printing techniques are described in detail by Andersson et al., “Consecutive Microcontact Printing—Ligands for Asymmetric Catalysis in Silicon Channels”, Sensors and Actuators B. 3997 pp. 1-7 (2001), hereby incorporated by reference for all purposes.

[0317] Specifically, during fabrication of structure 8700, the underlying substrate may be stamped with pattern 8710 of octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS). Subsequent alignment of microfabricated elastomeric chamber 8702 over pattern 8710 would form central hydrophobic region 8712.

[0318] Initially, structure 8700 would be filled with air. Aqueous target solution would then carefully be introduced through first inlet 8706, with air displaced from chamber 8702 through vent 8707. Because of the presence of hydrophobic chamber region 8712, filling of chamber 8702 with target solution would halt as the solution encountered region 8712. Similarly, hydrophilic crystallizing agent would carefully be introduced through second inlet 8708 to chamber 8702, stopping at hydrophobic region 8712. Air displaced by filling of chamber 8702 with crystallizing agent would exit chamber 8702 through vent 8707. Thus secured in place by the underlying patterned hydrophobic region 8712, the air pocket in central region 8712 would permit slow vapor diffusion of crystallizing agent into target sample to induce crystal formation on the right side of chamber 8702. Surrounding valves 8714 could be actuated to isolate the structure during this process.

[0319] While useful, the embodiment of a vapor diffusion structure just described in conjunction with FIG. 40 requires alignment of the microfabricated elastomeric channel to a patterned hydrophobic region on an underlying substrate. This alignment process may be difficult given the small feature sizes of structures in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. Moreover, during the fabrication process the hydrophobic material would likely be formed only on underlying substrate, and not on the channel walls.

[0320] Accordingly, FIG. 41 shows still another embodiment of a structure for performing crystallization of target materials by vapor diffusion, which does not require an alignment step. Specifically, recrystallization structure 8800 includes first chamber 8802 connected to second chamber 8804 by cross-flow channel 8806. Second flow channel 8808 intersects with cross-flow channel 8806, forming junction 8810. Flow across junction 8810 along cross-flow channel 8806 is controlled by first valve pair 8812. Flow across junction 8810 along second flow channel 8808 is controlled by second valve pair 8814.

[0321] Initially, first chamber 8802 is charged with target material solution and second chamber 8804 is charged with crystallizing agent. Next, first valve pair 8812 is closed and second valve pair 8814 is opened, and hydrophobic material such as OTS is flowed down second flow channel 8808 through junction 8810. As a result of this flow of material, hydrophobic residue 8816 remains on the substrate and possibly on the flow channel walls injunction 8810.

[0322] Next, air is introduced into second flow channel 8808, and second valve pair 8814 is closed. First valve pair 8812 is then opened to permit vapor diffusion of crystallizing agent in chamber 8804 across air-filled junction 8810 into target material solution in chamber 8802. During this vapor diffusion process, the air pocket is fixed in junction 8810 by closed valve pair 8814 and the presence of hydrophobic residue 8816. Valves 8818 could be closed to completely seal structure 8800 against the outside environment.

[0323] While the above embodiment has focused upon microcontact printing of hydrophobic moieties to fix in place air pockets during vapor diffusion, the present invention is not limited to this approach. Hydrophobic regions selectively introduced into portions of a microfabricated crystallization structure in accordance with the present invention could alternatively be utilized to fix in place barriers or impediments to diffusion in the form of hydrophobic oils.

[0324] Hydrophobic oil materials may also be utilized to coat the exterior surface of microfabricated elastomer structures in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. Such a coating may be impermeable to outdiffusion of vapor from the elastomer, thereby preventing dehydration of the structure during the potentially long crystallization durations. Alternatively, the coating oil may be somewhat permeable to water or other gases, thereby allowing for slow, controlled outdiffusion of water or gases to create within the structure conditions favorable to crystallization.

[0325] 5. Control Over Other Factors Influencing Crystallization

[0326] While the above crystallization structures describe altering the environment of the target material through introduction of volumes of an appropriate crystallization agent, many other factors are relevant to crystallization. Such additional factors include, but are not limited to, temperature, pressure, concentration of target material in solution, and the presence of seed materials.

[0327] In specific embodiments of the present invention, control over temperature during crystallization may be accomplished utilizing a composite elastomer/silicon structure previously described. Specifically, a Peltier temperature control structure may be fabricated in an underlying silicon substrate, with the elastomer aligned to the silicon such that a crystallization chamber is proximate to the Peltier device. Application of voltage of an appropriate polarity and magnitude to the Peltier device may control the temperature of solvent and countersolvent within the chamber.

[0328] Alternatively, as described by Wu et al. in “MEMS Flow Sensors for Nano-fluidic Applications”, Sensors and Actuators A 89 152-158 (2001), crystallization chambers could be heated and cooled through the selective application of current to a micromachined resistor structure resulting in ohmic heating. Moreover, the temperature of crystallization could be detected by monitoring the resistance of the heater over time. The Wu et al. paper is hereby incorporated by reference for all purposes.

[0329] It may also be useful to establish a temperature gradient across a microfabricated elastomeric crystallization structure in accordance with the present invention. Such a temperature gradient would subject target materials to a broad spectrum of temperatures during crystallization, allowing for extremely precise determination of optimum temperatures for crystallization.

[0330] With regard to controlling pressure during crystallization, embodiments of the present invention employing metering of countersolvent by volume exclusion are particularly advantageous. Specifically, once the chamber has been charged with appropriate volumes of solvent and countersolvent, a chamber inlet valve may be maintained shut while the membrane overlying the chamber is actuated, thereby causing pressure to increase in the chamber. Structures in accordance with the present invention employing techniques other than volume exclusion could exert pressure control by including flow channels and associated membranes adjacent to the crystallization chamber and specifically relegated to controlling pressure within the channel.

[0331] Another factor influencing crystallization is the amount of target material available in the solution. As a crystal forms, it acts as a sink to target material available in solution, to the point where the amount of target material remaining in solution may be inadequate to sustain continued crystal growth. Therefore, in order to grow sufficiently large crystals it may be necessary to provide additional target material during the crystallization process.

[0332] Accordingly, the cell pen structure previously described in connection with FIGS. 27A-27B may be advantageously employed in crystallization structures in accordance with embodiments of the present invention to confine growing crystals within a chamber. This obviates the danger of washing growing crystals down a flow channel that is providing additional target material, causing the growing crystals to be lost in the waste.

[0333] Moreover, the cell cage structure of FIGS. 27A-27B may also be useful during the process of crystal identification. Specifically, salts are often present in the sample or countersolvent, and these salts may form crystals during crystallization attempts. One popular method of distinguishing the growth of salt crystals from the target crystals of interest is through exposure to a staining dye such as IZIT™, manufactured by Hampton Research of Laguna Niguel, Calif. This IZIT™ dye stains protein crystals blue, but does not stain salt crystals.

[0334] However, in the process of flowing the IZIT™ dye to the crystallization chamber holding the crystals, the crystals may be dislodged, swept away, and lost. Therefore, the cell pen structure can further be employed in crystallization structures and methods in accordance with the present invention to secure crystals in place during the staining process.

[0335]FIG. 42 shows an embodiment of a sorting device for crystals based upon the cell cage concept. Specifically, crystals 8501 of varying sizes may be formed in flow channel 8502 upstream of sorting device 8500. Sorting device 8500 comprises successive rows 8504 of pillars 8506 spaced at different distances. Inlets 8508 of branch channels 8510 are positioned in front of rows 8504. As crystals 8501 flow down channel 8502, they encounter rows 8504 of pillars 8506. The largest crystals are unable to pass between gap Y between pillars 8506 of first row 8504 a, and accumulate in front of row 8504 a. Smaller sized crystals are gathered in front of successive rows having successively smaller spacings between pillars. Once sorted in the manner described above, the crystals of various sizes can be collected in chambers 8512 by pumping fluid through branch channels 8510 utilizing peristaltic pumps 8514 as previously described. Larger crystals collected by the sorting structure may be subjected to x-ray crystallographic analysis. Smaller crystals collected by the sorting structure may be utilized as seed crystals in further crystallization attempts.

[0336] Another factor influencing crystal growth is seeding. Introduction of a seed crystal to the target solution can greatly enhance crystal formation by providing a template to which molecules in solution can align. Where no seed crystal is available, embodiments of microfluidic crystallization methods and systems in accordance with the present invention may utilize other structures to perform a similar function.

[0337] For example, as discussed above, flow channels and chambers of structures in accordance with the present invention are typically defined by placing an elastomeric layer containing microfabricated features into contact with an underlying substrate such as glass. This substrate need not be planar, but rather may include projections or recesses of a size and/or shape calculated to induce crystal formation. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, the underlying substrate could be a mineral matrix exhibiting a regular desired morphology. Alternatively, the underlying substrate could be patterned (i.e. by conventional semiconductor lithography techniques) to exhibit a desired morphology or a spectrum of morphologies calculated to induce crystal formation. The optimal form of such a substrate surface morphology could be determined by prior knowledge of the target crystals.

[0338] Embodiments of crystallization structures and methods in accordance with the present invention offer a number of advantages over conventional approaches. One advantage is that the extremely small volumes (nanoliter/sub-nanoliter) of sample and crystallizing agent permit a wide variety of recrystallization conditions to be employed utilizing a relatively small amount of sample.

[0339] Another advantage of crystallization structures and methods in accordance with embodiments of the present invention is that the small size of the crystallization chambers allows crystallization attempts under hundreds or even thousands of different sets of conditions to be performed simultaneously. The small volumes of sample and crystallizing agent employed in recrystallization also result in a minimum waste of valuable purified target material.

[0340] A further advantage of crystallization in accordance with embodiments of the present invention is relative simplicity of operation. Specifically, control over flow utilizing parallel actuation requires the presence of only a few control lines, with the introduction of sample and crystallizing agent automatically performed by operation of the microfabricated device permits very rapid preparation times for a large number of samples.

[0341] Still another advantage of crystallization systems in accordance with embodiments of the present invention is the ability to control solution equilibration rates. Crystal growth is often very slow, and no crystals will be formed if the solution rapidly passes through an optimal concentration on the way to equilibrium. It may therefore be advantageous to control the rate of equilibration and thereby promote crystal growth at intermediate concentrations. In conventional approaches to crystallization, slow-paced equilibrium is achieved using such techniques as vapor diffusion, slow dialysis, and very small physical interfaces.

[0342] However, crystallization in accordance with embodiments of the present invention allows for unprecedented control over the rate of solution equilibrium. In systems metering crystallizing agent by volume exclusion, the overlying membrane can be repeatedly deformed, with each deformation giving rise to the introduction of additional crystallizing agent. In systems that meter crystallizing agent by volume entrapment, the valves separating sample from crystallizing agent may be opened for a short time to allow for partial diffusive mixing, and then closed to allow chamber equilibration at an intermediate concentration. The process is repeated until the final concentration is reached. Either the volume exclusion or entrapment approaches enables a whole range of intermediate concentrations to be screened in one experiment utilizing a single reaction chamber.

[0343] The manipulation of solution equilibrium over time also exploits differential rates of diffusion of macromolecules such as proteins versus much smaller crystallizing agents such as salts. As large protein molecules diffuse much more slowly than the salts, rapidly opening and closing interface valves allows the concentration of crystallizing agent to be significantly changed, while at the same time very little sample is lost by diffusion into the larger volume of crystallizing agent. Moreover, as described above, many crystallization structures described readily allow for introduction of different crystallizing agents at different times to the same reaction chamber. This allows for crystallization protocols prescribing changed solvent conditions over time.

[0344] While the present invention has been described herein with reference to particular embodiments thereof, a latitude of modification, various changes and substitutions are intended in the foregoing disclosure, and it will be appreciated that in some instances some features of the invention will be employed without a corresponding use of other features without departing from the scope of the invention as set forth. Therefore, many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation or material to the teachings of the invention without departing from the essential scope and spirit of the present invention. It is intended that the invention not be limited to the particular embodiment disclosed as the best mode contemplated for carrying out this invention, but that the invention will include all embodiments and equivalents falling within the scope of the claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of metering a volume of crystallizing agent for crystallization comprising: providing a chamber having a volume in an elastomeric block separated from a control recess by an elastomeric membrane; supplying a pressure to the control recess such that the membrane is deflected into the chamber and the volume is reduced by a calibrated amount, thereby excluding from the chamber a calibrated volume of a crystallization sample.
 2. The method of claim 1 further comprising: providing the crystallizing agent to an opening of the chamber; and ceasing application of the pressure such that the membrane relaxes back to an original position and the calibrated volume of the crystallizing agent is drawn into the chamber.
 3. The method of claim 2 wherein the crystallization sample is a protein solution such that drawing the crystallizing agent into the chamber changes a solubility of the protein.
 4. The method of claim 1 further comprising the parallelization of multiple chambers with varying calibrated volumes.
 5. The method of claim 1 further comprising the use of a parallel structure to rapidly determine optimal conditions for crystallization.
 6. A system for crystallizing a target material comprising: an elastomeric block including a microfabricated chamber configured to contain a volume of a solution of the target material; and a microfabricated flow channel in fluid communication with the chamber, the flow channel introducing a volume of a crystallizing agent into the chamber.
 7. The crystallization system of claim 6 further comprising an isolation structure, the isolation structure configured to selectively isolate the chamber from the flow channel as the flow channel receives a volume of crystallizing agent, and then to place the chamber into contact with the flow channel to alter a solution condition within the chamber.
 8. The crystallization system of claim 6 wherein the volume of crystallizing agent is determined by a dimension of the flow channel.
 9. The crystallization system of claim 6 wherein the volume of crystallizing agent is determined by a length of the flow channel.
 10. The crystallization system of claim 6 wherein the volume of crystallizing agent is determined by a width of the flow channel.
 11. The crystallization system of claim 6 further comprising a control channel overlying the chamber and separated from the chamber by a membrane, the membrane deflectable into the chamber to exclude a calibrated volume of sample solution from the chamber, such that relaxation of the membrane draws the calibrated volume of the crystallizing agent into the chamber.
 12. The crystallization system of claim 6 further comprising: a plurality of first parallel flow channels in fluid communication with a target material; and a plurality of second parallel flow channels orthogonal to and intersecting the first flow channels to create a plurality of junctions, the second flow channels in fluid communication with a crystallizing agent such that an array of solution environments can be created at the junctions.
 13. A system for crystallizing a target material comprising: an elastomeric block including a microfabricated chamber configured to contain a volume of a solution of the target material; and a crystallizing agent reservoir in fluid communication with the microfabricated chamber through a dialysis membrane, the dialysis membrane configured to prevent flow of the target material into the crystallizing agent reservoir.
 14. The crystallization system of claim 13 wherein the crystallization reservoir is formed in a second elastomeric block.
 15. The crystallization system of claim 13 wherein the dialysis membrane is present within the elastomeric block.
 16. The crystallization system of claim 13 wherein the dialysis membrane comprises a polymer that is introduced between the chamber and the reservoir and then subjected to cross-linking.
 17. The crystallization system of claim 13 further comprising an intermediate solution imposed between the chamber and the reservoir to mediate diffusion of crystallizing agent into the chamber.
 18. The crystallization system of claim 17 further comprising a second dialysis membrane imposed between the intermediate solution and the reservoir.
 19. A method for crystallizing a target material comprising: charging a chamber of a microfabricated elastomeric block with a volume of solution of the target material; and introducing a volume of a crystallization agent into the chamber to change a solvent environment of the chamber.
 20. The method of claim 19 wherein the volume of crystallizing agent is introduced into the chamber by deforming an elastomer membrane overlying the chamber to exclude the volume of the sample from the chamber, followed by relaxing the membrane to cause the volume of a surrounding crystallizing agent to flow into the chamber.
 21. The method of claim 19 wherein the volume of crystallizing agent is introduced into the chamber by entrapping a volume of crystallizing agent proximate to the chamber, and then opening an elastomer valve positioned between the chamber and the crystallization agent to allow diffusion of crystallization agent into the chamber.
 22. The method of claim 19 wherein the volume of crystallization agent is introduced into the chamber by diffusion across a dialysis membrane.
 23. The method of claim 19 wherein the chamber is defined by a junction between a first flow channel orthogonal to a second flow channel, and wherein the sample is flowed through the first flow channel and the crystallization agent flowed through the second flow channel.
 24. The method of claim 23 wherein an array of chambers is defined by a junction between a first set of parallel flow channels orthogonal to a second set of parallel flow channels, and wherein samples are flowed through the first flow channels and crystallization agents are flowed through the second flow channels to create an array of solution conditions.
 25. A method for crystallizing a target material comprising introducing a crystallizing agent to a target material solution in the presence of a surface having a morphology calculated to serve as a template for formation of a crystal of the target material.
 26. The method of claim 25 wherein the surface is a surface of mineral substrate exhibiting a regular morphology.
 27. The method of claim 25 wherein the surface is a surface of semiconductor material exhibiting a morphology defined by features patterned by lithography.
 28. A method for crystallizing a target material by vapor diffusion comprising: providing a target material solution within a microfabricated chamber; providing a recrystallizing agent in fluid communication with the microfabricated chamber; providing an air pocket between the chamber and the recrystallization agent, such that the crystallizing agent diffuses in the vapor phase across the air pocket into the target material solution.
 29. The method of claim 28 wherein the air pocket is formed by trapping air during charging of the chamber with target material solution and introduction of the recrystallizing agent.
 30. The method of claim 28 further comprising creating a hydrophobic material in contact with the air pocket, the hydrophobic material preventing target material solution and crystallizing agent from displacing the air pocket.
 31. The method of claim 30 wherein the hydrophobic material is created by microcontact printing an underlying substrate.
 32. The method of claim 30 wherein the hydrophobic material is created by flowing a hydrophobic fluid through a junction between the chamber and the crystallizing agent to leave the hydrophobic material as a residue. 